Antiquities of the Jews Book 14

BOOK XIV

Containing the Interval of Thirty-Two Years

From the Death of Queen Alexandra to the Death of Antigonus

CHAPTER 1

The War Between Aristobulus and Hyrcanus for the Kingdom; Their Agreement That Aristobulus Should Rule While Hyrcanus Lived as a Private Citizen; and How Antipater Later Persuaded Hyrcanus to Flee to Aretas

In the previous book, we told of Queen Alexandra's affairs and her death. We will now describe what happened afterward and how those events were connected to the history already given. Before we proceed, we must say that we are determined to leave out no facts through ignorance or neglect. We are writing about events that most people know little about because they took place so long ago. We also hope to present them in an agreeable style, choosing our words with care and arranging them well, with enough ornament to give readers pleasure as they learn what happened. Above all, however, historians must report events accurately and truthfully. Those unfamiliar with these matters depend on writers to tell them what occurred.

Hyrcanus began his high priesthood in the third year of the 177th Olympiad, when Quintus Hortensius and Quintus Metellus, called Metellus of Crete, were consuls at Rome. Aristobulus soon made war against him. When the brothers fought at Jericho, many of Hyrcanus's soldiers deserted and joined Aristobulus. Hyrcanus fled to the citadel, where Aristobulus's wife and children had been confined by their mother, as we have already related. Aristobulus's opponents had also taken refuge within the temple walls, and Hyrcanus attacked and defeated them there.

Afterward, Hyrcanus sent a message to his brother proposing that they settle their dispute. He agreed to give up his claim to the throne on the condition that Aristobulus become king and that Hyrcanus live without taking part in public affairs, enjoying in peace the property he had acquired. They made this agreement in the temple, swore oaths, clasped hands, and embraced in front of the assembled people. Then they went their separate ways: Aristobulus returned to the palace, while Hyrcanus went to Aristobulus's former house and lived as a private citizen.

Hyrcanus had a friend named Antipater, an Idumean who was very wealthy, energetic, and politically ambitious. He opposed Aristobulus because he favored Hyrcanus. Nicolaus of Damascus claims that Antipater came from a leading Jewish family that had returned from Babylon to Judea. He made that claim to please Herod, Antipater's son, who later became king of the Jews after a series of changes in fortune. We will tell Herod's story in its proper place.

At first, Antipater was called Antipas, which was also his father's name. They tell this story about his father: King Alexander and his wife appointed him commander of all Idumea. He then formed friendly ties with the Arabs, the people of Gaza, and the people of Ascalon who supported him, winning their loyalty with many generous gifts.

The younger Antipater feared Aristobulus's power and the harm he might suffer from Aristobulus's hostility. So he secretly stirred up the most influential Jews against Aristobulus. He told them it was wrong to accept Aristobulus's rule, since he had taken power unlawfully and driven out his older brother, who had the stronger claim by birth. Antipater repeated the same arguments to Hyrcanus. He warned him that his life was in danger unless he protected himself and got away from Aristobulus. Aristobulus's friends, he said, were constantly urging the king to kill Hyrcanus, since they believed that doing so was the only way to secure his rule.

Hyrcanus did not believe Antipater. He was mild-mannered and slow to accept accusations against others. Because he had little interest in public affairs and lacked ambition, people who watched him regarded him as weak and unmanly. Aristobulus, by contrast, was energetic and bold.

When Antipater saw that Hyrcanus would not heed his warnings, he continued day after day to accuse Aristobulus of invented crimes and to claim that he planned to kill Hyrcanus. At last, Antipater urged Hyrcanus to flee to Aretas, king of Arabia, and promised to help him and go with him. Hyrcanus agreed that fleeing to Aretas was the best course.

Arabia bordered Judea, but Hyrcanus first sent Antipater to the Arab king to secure a promise that Aretas would not hand him over to his enemies when he arrived as a suppliant. Antipater obtained that assurance and returned to Jerusalem. Some time later, he led Hyrcanus out of the city by night. After a long journey, they reached Petra, where Aretas had his palace. Since Antipater was a close friend of the king, he urged him day after day to restore Hyrcanus to Judea, and offered him gifts in return. At last, Aretas agreed.

Hyrcanus promised that, if Aretas restored him to the throne, he would return the land and the twelve cities that his father, Alexander, had taken from the Arabs. The cities were Medaba, Naballo, Libias, Tharabasa, Agala, Athone, Zoar, Orone, Marissa, Rudda, Lussa, and Oruba.

CHAPTER 2

How Aretas and Hyrcanus Went to War Against Aristobulus and Besieged Jerusalem; How the Roman General Scaurus Lifted the Siege; and the Death of Onias

After Aretas received these promises, he marched against Aristobulus with an army of fifty thousand cavalry and infantry and defeated him in battle. Afterward, many men deserted to Hyrcanus. Aristobulus was left with few supporters, so he fled to Jerusalem. The king of Arabia then brought his whole army against the city and laid siege to Aristobulus in the Temple. The people supported Hyrcanus and helped him with the siege, while only the priests remained with Aristobulus. Aretas joined the Arab forces with those of the Jews and pressed the siege hard.

This happened during the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which we call Passover. At that time, many leading Jews left the country and fled to Egypt. Among them was a man named Onias, a righteous man who was loved by God. During a severe drought, he had prayed for the heat to end, and God had answered his prayer by sending rain. Onias had hidden himself because he saw that the rebellion would continue for a long time. But the people brought him to the Jewish camp and asked him to pray against Aristobulus and his followers, just as he had once prayed for an end to the drought.

Onias refused and offered excuses, but the crowd kept pressing him until he finally spoke. Standing among them, he said, "O God, King of the whole world, the people standing here are yours, and so are the priests under siege. I beg you not to hear the prayers of either side against the other, and not to grant either side's prayers against its opponents." After he said this, the wicked Jews around him stoned him to death.

God punished them at once for their cruelty and took vengeance for Onias's murder. While Aristobulus and the priests remained under siege, Passover arrived. At this feast, it was customary to offer many sacrifices to God. But Aristobulus's supporters had no animals for the sacrifices, so they asked their countrymen outside the walls to supply them. They promised to pay whatever price the sellers demanded.

The people outside asked for one thousand drachmae for each animal. Aristobulus and the priests agreed to pay, and those inside lowered the money over the walls. Yet after taking the payment, the others refused to hand over the animals. They broke their promise and showed contempt for God by withholding the sacrifices from those who needed them. When the priests realized they had been deceived, they prayed for God to punish their countrymen. Their punishment came without delay: God sent a fierce windstorm that destroyed the crops throughout the country. As a result, a modius of wheat cost eleven drachmae.

Meanwhile, Pompey sent Scaurus to Syria while he remained in Armenia, waging war against Tigranes. When Scaurus reached Damascus, he learned that Lollius and Metellus had recently captured the city. He then hurried into Judea.

There, ambassadors from both Aristobulus and Hyrcanus came to him, and each asked for his support. They both offered him money: Aristobulus promised four hundred talents, and Hyrcanus offered just as much. Scaurus accepted Aristobulus's offer because Aristobulus was wealthy and generous, while Hyrcanus was poor and tightfisted. Scaurus also thought Hyrcanus had made an outrageous promise in the hope of gaining greater advantage. In his view, capturing a powerful, strongly fortified city was not the same as driving a group of fugitives, joined by a larger force of Nabateans who were poor fighters, out of the country.

For these reasons, Scaurus made an agreement with Aristobulus, took his money, and lifted the siege. He ordered Aretas to leave Judea or face Rome as an enemy. Scaurus then returned to Damascus. Aristobulus gathered a large army and marched against Aretas and Hyrcanus. He fought them at a place called Papyron, defeated them, and killed about six thousand of their men. Phalion, the brother of Antipater, was among the dead.

CHAPTER 3

How Aristobulus and Hyrcanus Came Before Pompey to Dispute the Kingdom; How Aristobulus Fled to the Fortress of Alexandrium; and How Pompey Marched Against Him and Ordered Him to Surrender His Fortresses

Shortly afterward, Pompey came to Damascus and marched through Celesyria. Ambassadors from all Syria and Egypt, as well as Judea, came to him. Aristobulus had sent Pompey a valuable gift, a golden vine worth five hundred talents. Strabo of Cappadocia describes the gift this way:

"An embassy also came from Egypt, along with a crown worth four thousand pieces of gold. From Judea came another gift, which you might call a vine or a garden. They call it Terpole, meaning 'Delight.' We saw the gift ourselves in Rome, displayed in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. It bore this inscription: 'The gift of Alexander, king of the Jews.' It was valued at five hundred talents, and people say Aristobulus, the ruler of the Jews, sent it."

Soon afterward, two more ambassadors came to Pompey: Antipater, representing Hyrcanus, and Nicodemus, representing Aristobulus. Nicodemus accused several men of taking bribes. He named Gabinius first, claiming he had received three hundred talents, and then Scaurus, who had allegedly taken four hundred. By making these accusations, Nicodemus turned both men against Aristobulus, adding to the enemies he already had.

At the beginning of spring, Pompey ordered the parties in dispute to come before him. He led his army out of its winter quarters and marched into Damascus. Along the way, he destroyed the citadel at Apamia, which Antiochus Cyzicenus had built. He also dealt with the territory of Ptolemy Menneus, a wicked man who was no better than Dionysius of Tripoli, a relative of his by marriage whom Pompey had beheaded. Ptolemy escaped punishment for his crimes by paying Pompey a thousand talents. Pompey used the money to pay his soldiers.

Pompey also captured Lysias, where Silas, a Jew, ruled as tyrant. After passing through Heliopolis and Chalcis, he crossed the mountain on the border of Celesyria and traveled from Pella to Damascus. There he heard the dispute between the Jews and their rulers, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. The people also brought complaints against both brothers. They did not want a king, they said, because their ancestors had established a government under the priests of the God they worshipped. Although Hyrcanus and Aristobulus descended from priests, the people accused them of trying to change the government and enslave the nation.

Hyrcanus complained that Aristobulus had deprived him of his birthright, even though he was the older brother. He said he controlled only a small part of the country because Aristobulus had seized the rest by force. Hyrcanus also blamed him for raids against neighboring lands and piracy at sea. The nation, he argued, would not have rebelled if Aristobulus had not been violent and disorderly. More than a thousand respected Jews supported Hyrcanus's charges, with Antipater arranging their testimony.

Aristobulus answered that Hyrcanus had lost power because he was idle and weak. He said he had taken control because he feared the government would otherwise pass to someone else. As for the title of king, Aristobulus claimed that his father had held it before him. He then called witnesses to support his case. They were young and arrogant, and the court despised their purple clothes, carefully styled hair, and other finery. They looked less like men appearing in court than participants in a grand procession.

After hearing both sides, Pompey condemned Aristobulus for his violent conduct. He then spoke kindly to the two brothers and sent them away. Pompey said that once he returned from settling the affairs of the Nabateans, he would resolve the matters in Judea. Until then, he ordered them to keep the peace.

Pompey treated Aristobulus courteously because he did not want him to provoke a revolt and obstruct Pompey's return. Aristobulus nevertheless acted against that order. Without waiting for Pompey's promised decision, he went to the city of Delius and then marched into Judea.

Pompey was angered by Aristobulus's conduct. He took the army he had been leading against the Nabateans, along with auxiliaries from Damascus and other parts of Syria, and the Roman legions under his command. Then he marched against Aristobulus.

After passing Pella and Scythopolis, Pompey reached Corem, the first entrance into Judea for travelers crossing the inland regions. There he found a beautiful fortress on the summit of a mountain called Alexandrium, where Aristobulus had taken refuge. Pompey ordered him to come down.

Many people urged Aristobulus not to fight the Romans, so he came down from the fortress. He argued with his brother over the right to rule, then returned to the citadel with Pompey's permission. He went back and forth in this way two or three times, hoping Pompey would grant him the kingdom. Aristobulus claimed he would obey Pompey's orders, but he kept returning to the fortress. He wanted to preserve his position and prepare for war in case Pompey gave the government to Hyrcanus.

Pompey then ordered Aristobulus to surrender the fortresses he controlled and to send their governors written instructions in his own hand. The governors had been told not to surrender them on anyone else's orders. Aristobulus agreed, but he returned angrily to Jerusalem and began preparing for war. A short time later, while Pompey was marching against him, men arrived from Pontus with news that Mithridates had died, killed by his son Pharmaces.

CHAPTER 4

How Pompey Besieged Jerusalem After Its Citizens Shut the Gates Against Him, Took the City by Force, and What Else He Did in Judea

Pompey had set up camp at Jericho, where palm trees grow and balsam is produced. Balsam is a precious ointment that flows like sap from a cut in the wood when it is opened with a sharp stone. The next morning, Pompey marched toward Jerusalem.

Aristobulus soon regretted his actions. He went to Pompey, promised to pay him money, welcomed him into Jerusalem, and asked him to end the war and settle matters peacefully. Pompey accepted his plea and sent Gabinius with soldiers to collect the money and take control of the city. But none of this happened. Aristobulus's soldiers refused to carry out the agreement, so Gabinius returned without the money and without entering the city.

Pompey was furious. He imprisoned Aristobulus and marched on Jerusalem, which was fortified on every side except the north. There, its defenses were weaker. A broad, deep ditch surrounded the city and enclosed the Temple, which stood behind a strong stone wall.

The people inside the city were divided over what to do. Some wanted to surrender Jerusalem to Pompey, while Aristobulus's supporters urged them to shut the gates because their king was in prison. Aristobulus's party gained control of the Temple, cut the bridge connecting it to the city, and prepared to withstand a siege. The opposing faction let Pompey's army into the city and handed over both Jerusalem and the royal palace.

Pompey sent his deputy Piso with an army to secure the city and palace with garrisons. He also fortified the houses near the Temple and those farther away. At first, Pompey offered the people in the Temple terms of peace. When they refused, he built a wall around the area. Hyrcanus helped him willingly at every opportunity.

Pompey placed his camp north of the Temple, where the ground made an attack most practical. Even there, however, the defenses were formidable. Great towers stood along the wall, and a ditch and deep valley surrounded the Temple. On the side facing the city, steep cliffs formed a natural barrier, while the bridge Pompey's men had used to enter the city had been destroyed.

The Romans raised an earthwork day after day, laboring hard and cutting timber from the surrounding area. Once the earthwork was high enough, they partly filled the ditch, though its great depth made the task difficult. Pompey then brought siege engines and battering rams from Tyre. He set them on the earthwork and used them to strike the Temple with heavy stones.

The Jews observed the seventh day as a day of rest. Without this practice, the Romans could never have completed the earthwork, because the Jews would have resisted their labor. Our law permits us to defend ourselves when enemies attack us, even on that day, but it does not allow us to attack them while they are occupied with other work.

When the Romans learned this, they stopped throwing stones at the Jews and avoided open battle on the days we call Sabbaths. Instead, they continued raising the earthwork and preparing their siege engines, so they could attack the next day.

This account shows how faithfully we keep God's laws. Even during the siege, fear did not stop the priests from performing their sacred duties. They offered sacrifices on the altar twice each day, in the morning and around the ninth hour. They continued even when stones fell among them and people were killed.

The city fell in the third month, on the day of the fast, in the 179th Olympiad, when Gaius Antonius and Marcus Tullius Cicero were consuls. The enemy attacked and killed those in the Temple, yet the priests who were offering sacrifices did not flee. Neither fear for their own lives nor the sight of those already slain drove them from the altar. They chose to face whatever came rather than neglect any duty required by their law.

This is no false boast or invented praise of our piety. The account is true, as those who wrote about Pompey's deeds can confirm. Strabo and Nicolaus of Damascus bear witness to it, as does Titus Livius, the Roman historian.

When the battering engine was brought close, it shook the largest tower until the tower collapsed and broke part of the fortifications. The Romans rushed through the opening. Cornelius Faustus, the son of Sylla, was the first to climb the wall with his soldiers. Furius the centurion followed with his men on another side, while Fabius, also a centurion, climbed in the center with a large force behind him.

The assault became a slaughter. Romans killed many Jews, and some Jews killed one another. Others threw themselves from the cliffs or set fire to their homes because they could no longer bear their suffering. Twelve thousand Jews died, while only a few Romans were killed. Absalom, who was both Aristobulus's uncle and father-in-law, was captured.

The Temple, which had been inaccessible for generations and hidden from everyone, was violated. Pompey entered it, along with many of his men, and saw things that only the high priests were permitted to see. Inside were the golden table, the sacred lampstand, the vessels used for pouring offerings, and a large supply of spices. The Temple treasury also held two thousand talents of sacred money. Yet Pompey touched none of it, out of respect for religion. In this, too, he acted with honor.

The next day, Pompey ordered the Temple attendants to cleanse it and present the offerings required by the law. He restored the high priesthood to Hyrcanus, both because Hyrcanus had helped him in other ways and because he had kept the Jews in the countryside from supporting Aristobulus in the war. Pompey also punished those who had started the conflict and rewarded Faustus and the others who had climbed the wall with such courage.

He made Jerusalem subject to Rome and removed from Judea the cities of Coele-Syria that its people had conquered. He placed those cities under the authority of the Roman governor and confined the Jewish nation within its former borders.

Pompey also rebuilt Gadara, which had recently been destroyed, to please his freedman Demetrius of Gadara. He restored Hippos, Scythopolis, Pella, Dios, Samaria, Marissa, Ashdod, Jamnia, and Arethusa to their own inhabitants. These cities lay inland. He also restored the coastal cities that had been destroyed: Gaza, Joppa, Dora, and Strato's Tower. Herod later rebuilt Strato's Tower magnificently, added harbors and temples, and renamed it Caesarea. Pompey left all these cities free and attached them to the province of Syria.

The disaster that fell on Jerusalem came from the conflict between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. Their rivalry cost us our freedom and brought us under Roman rule. We also lost the land we had taken from the Syrians by force and had to return it to them. Before long, the Romans demanded more than ten thousand talents from us. The royal authority, once held by members of the high-priestly family, passed into the hands of private citizens. I will discuss these matters in their proper place.

Pompey gave Scaurus control of Coele-Syria, extending as far as the Euphrates and Egypt, and placed two Roman legions under his command. He then went to Cilicia and hurried on to Rome. He took Aristobulus and his children with him in chains. Aristobulus had two daughters and two sons. One son escaped, but the younger son, Antigonus, went to Rome with his sisters.

CHAPTER 5

How Scaurus Made a Mutual-Assistance Pact with Aretas, and What Gabinius Did in Judea After Defeating Alexander, Son of Aristobulus

Scaurus marched against Petra in Arabia and burned the surrounding settlements because the city was so difficult to reach. When famine struck his army, Antipater supplied it with grain and other necessities from Judea, acting on Hyrcanus's orders.

Scaurus then sent Antipater as an envoy to Aretas, with whom Antipater had once lived. Antipater persuaded Aretas to pay Scaurus a sum of money to spare his country from further destruction. He also guaranteed Aretas's payment of three hundred talents. Scaurus then ended the campaign, a decision both he and Aretas wanted.

Some time later, Alexander, son of Aristobulus, invaded Judea. Gabinius had arrived from Rome to command the Roman forces in Syria, and he undertook a campaign against Alexander. Hyrcanus wasn't yet strong enough to oppose Alexander, but he had begun rebuilding Jerusalem's wall, which Pompey had destroyed. The Romans in the city stopped him from continuing.

Alexander traveled through the surrounding country, gathered many Jews to his side, and quickly assembled ten thousand foot soldiers and fifteen hundred horsemen. He fortified Alexandrium, near Corem, and Macherus, near the mountains of Arabia.

Gabinius advanced against him, first sending Marcus Antonius and other commanders ahead. They armed the Romans who followed them and the Jews under Roman control, whose leaders were Pitholaus and Malichus. They also brought their allies from Antipater's company. The forces met Alexander, while Gabinius followed with his legion.

Alexander withdrew toward Jerusalem, where the armies joined battle. The Romans killed about three thousand of his men and captured just as many.

Gabinius then arrived at Alexandrium and offered the defenders terms if they surrendered, promising to forgive their earlier offenses. A large force of Alexander's supporters had camped outside the fortress. The Romans attacked them, and Marcus Antonius fought bravely, killing many of the enemy and winning great honor.

Gabinius left part of his army to continue the siege and traveled through other parts of Judea. He ordered the rebuilding of every city he found in ruins. Samaria, Ashdod, Scythopolis, Anthedon, Raphia, Dora, Marissa, and Gaza were among the cities restored, along with several others. The inhabitants followed his orders, and cities that had long stood deserted were settled again.

After restoring these cities, Gabinius returned to Alexandrium and pressed the siege. Alexander sent envoys to ask forgiveness for his past actions. He surrendered the fortresses of Hyrcania and Macherus, and finally Alexandrium itself. Gabinius demolished the fortresses.

Alexander's mother supported the Romans, since her husband and other children were in Rome. When she came to Gabinius, he granted her requests. After settling matters with her, he brought Hyrcanus to Jerusalem and entrusted him with the temple's care.

Gabinius also established five councils and divided the people among them. The councils governed from Jerusalem, Gadara, Amathus, Jericho, and Sepphoris in Galilee. The Jews were now free of monarchical rule and governed by an aristocracy.

CHAPTER 6

How Gabinius Captured Aristobulus After His Escape from Rome and Sent Him Back; How, on His Return from Egypt, Gabinius Defeated Alexander and the Nabateans

Aristobulus escaped from Rome and returned to Judea. There he began rebuilding Alexandrium, which had recently been demolished. Gabinius sent troops under Sisenna, Antonius, and Servilius to stop him from taking control of the country and to capture him.

Many Jews joined Aristobulus because they remembered his former glory and hoped for a change in government. Pitholaus, a lieutenant in Jerusalem, deserted to him with a thousand men. Many others who joined him, however, had no weapons. When Aristobulus decided to march to Macherus, he dismissed the unarmed men because they could not help in the fighting. He continued with eight thousand armed men.

The Romans attacked them fiercely. The Jews fought bravely, but the Romans defeated them and drove them into flight. About five thousand Jews died, while the rest scattered and tried to escape. Aristobulus still had more than a thousand men with him, so he fled to Macherus and fortified the place. Despite his earlier defeat, he remained hopeful. After holding out against the siege for two days and receiving many wounds, he was captured and brought before Gabinius along with his son Antigonus, who had also fled Rome with him.

That was Aristobulus's fate. He was sent back to Rome and held in chains. He had been both king and high priest for three years and six months, and he was a distinguished man of great spirit. The Senate, however, released his children. Gabinius had written that he had promised their mother he would do so when she surrendered the fortresses to him. The children then returned to Judea.

Gabinius set out to campaign against the Parthians and had already crossed the Euphrates when he changed his plans. He decided to return to Egypt and restore Ptolemy to his kingdom. This has also been described elsewhere.

Antipater supplied the army Gabinius sent against Archelaus with grain, weapons, and money. He also won over the Jews who lived beyond Pelusium and guarded the routes into Egypt, making them his allies.

When Gabinius returned from Egypt, he found Syria in turmoil, with rebellions and unrest. Alexander, the son of Aristobulus, had once again seized power by force and persuaded many Jews to join him. He marched across the country with a large army, killing every Roman he could find, then laid siege to the mountain called Gerizim, where the Romans had taken refuge.

When Gabinius learned of the disorder in Syria, he sent Antipater, a prudent man, to the rebels. Antipater tried to persuade them to abandon their rebellion and return to their senses. He won many of them over, but he could not restrain Alexander, who commanded an army of thirty thousand Jews.

Alexander met Gabinius in battle and was defeated. He lost ten thousand men near Mount Tabor.

Gabinius then arranged the affairs of Jerusalem in keeping with Antipater's wishes. Afterward, he marched against the Nabateans and defeated them in battle. He also treated Mithridates and Orsanes, two Parthian deserters who had come to him, as friends, although rumors claimed they had deserted him.

After completing several notable military campaigns, Gabinius returned to Rome and handed the government over to Crassus. Nicolaus of Damascus and Strabo of Cappadocia both describe the campaigns Pompey and Gabinius led against the Jews, and neither gives an account that differs from the other's.

CHAPTER 7

How Crassus Entered Judea and Plundered the Temple; How He Then Marched Against the Parthians and Perished with His Army; How Cassius Took Control of Syria, Stopped the Parthians, and Later Went to Judea

As Crassus set out on his campaign against the Parthians, he entered Judea and took the money Pompey had left in the temple, amounting to two thousand talents. He also planned to seize all the temple's gold, which totaled eight thousand talents. Among its treasures was a beam of solid beaten gold that weighed three hundred minae, with each mina equal to two and a half pounds.

Eleazar, the priest who guarded the sacred treasures, gave Crassus the beam. He did so with good intentions, not from greed or treachery. Eleazar had charge of the temple's veils, which were finely made and very costly. They hung from the beam, and he feared Crassus would take all the temple's ornaments. So he offered him the gold beam in exchange for the rest of the temple's treasures. Crassus swore that he would take nothing else and would be satisfied with the beam, which was worth many tens of thousands [of shekels].

The beam lay inside a hollow wooden beam, and no one knew about it except Eleazar. Crassus accepted it on the condition that he leave the rest of the temple's property untouched. Yet he broke his oath and took all the gold in the temple.

No one should wonder that our temple held such wealth. Jews lived throughout the known world, and those who worshipped God, including people in Asia and Europe, had sent offerings to the temple since ancient times. The size of these contributions is supported by reliable testimony. It does not come from our own exaggeration. Many witnesses confirm it, especially Strabo of Cappadocia, who writes:

"Mithridates went to Cos and took the money Queen Cleopatra had deposited there, along with eight hundred talents belonging to the Jews."

We have no public funds except those dedicated to God. The Jews of Asia must have moved this money to Cos because they feared Mithridates. It is unlikely that the people of Judea, who had a fortified city and a temple, would send their money to Cos. Nor would the Jews of Alexandria have done so, since they had no reason to fear Mithridates.

Strabo gives further evidence in another passage. He says that while Sulla was crossing into Greece to fight Mithridates, he sent Lucullus to end a revolt raised by our people in Cyrene, where Jews lived throughout the known world. Strabo writes:

"The people of Cyrene belong to four classes: citizens, farmers, foreigners, and Jews. The Jews have already spread into every city. It is hard to find a place in the known world that has not welcomed them and where they do not live. Egypt and Cyrene, which have the same rulers, along with many other nations, have adopted their way of life. These lands support large Jewish communities, prosper alongside them, and follow the same laws.

"In Egypt, the Jews have assigned places to live, in addition to the district set aside for them in Alexandria, which takes up a large part of the city. They also have an ethnarch who governs their people, settles disputes, oversees contracts, and enforces their laws, as a ruler would in a free republic.

"The Jews are powerful in Egypt because they originally came from there, and because the land where they now live lies near Egypt. They also moved to Cyrene because it borders Egypt, just as Judea does, and was once part of the same kingdom."

This is what Strabo says.

After Crassus had arranged everything as he wished, he marched into Parthia. There, as has been told elsewhere, he and his entire army perished. Cassius fled Rome for Syria and took control of the province. Because he had defeated Crassus, the Parthians began raiding Syria, but Cassius held them back.

On his way back to Tyre, Cassius also went into Judea. He attacked Tarichee, captured it at once, and took about thirty thousand Jews prisoner. He also killed Pitholaus, who had continued the rebellious actions of Aristobulus. Antipater persuaded Cassius to do this and held great influence over him. At that time, Antipater was also highly respected among the Idumeans. He had married Cypros, the daughter of one of their leading men. They had four sons, Phasael, Herod, who later became king, Joseph, and Pheroras, as well as a daughter named Salome.

Antipater also formed friendships and alliances with other rulers, especially the king of Arabia. During his conflict with Aristobulus, he entrusted his children to the Arabian king. Cassius then broke camp and marched to the Euphrates to meet the forces coming against him, as other writers have related.

Some time later, Caesar took Rome after Pompey and the Senate fled across the Ionian Sea. Caesar freed Aristobulus from captivity and planned to send him to Syria. He gave him two legions so that Aristobulus, a powerful man in the region, could restore order there.

Aristobulus never enjoyed the power Caesar had given him. Pompey's supporters stopped him and poisoned him. Caesar's supporters buried him. His body lay embalmed in honey for a long time. Later, Antony sent it to Judea and arranged for him to be buried in the royal tomb.

When Pompey ordered Scipio to execute Alexander, the son of Aristobulus, Scipio beheaded him. Alexander had been accused of crimes he had committed against the Romans earlier. He died at Antioch.

Ptolemy, son of Menneus and ruler of Chalcis beneath Mount Lebanon, took Aristobulus's other children into his care. He sent his own son, Philippion, to Askelon to Aristobulus's wife and asked her to send her son Antigonus and her daughters back with him. Philippion fell in love with one of the daughters, Alexandra, and married her. Later, however, his father Ptolemy killed him and married Alexandra, while continuing to care for her siblings.

CHAPTER 8

The Jews Join Caesar Against Egypt. Antipater's Courage and Friendship with Caesar. The Honors Granted to the Jews by the Romans and Athenians

After Pompey died and Caesar defeated him, Antipater, who managed the affairs of the Jews, proved useful to Caesar in his war against Egypt. He acted on Hyrcanus's orders. Mithridates of Pergamum was bringing reinforcements, but he could not continue his march through Pelusium and had to stop at Ascalon. Antipater came to him there with three thousand armed Jews. He had also arranged for the leading Arabians to join Mithridates. Because of Antipater, the Syrians also helped, eager to show their support for Caesar. These included Jamblichus the ruler, his son Ptolemy, Ptolemy son of Sohemus, who lived on Mount Libanus, and nearly all the cities.

Mithridates then marched out of Syria and reached Pelusium. When the people there refused to let him enter, he laid siege to the city. Antipater distinguished himself in the attack. He was the first to tear down part of the wall and open a way for the others to enter, and Pelusium was taken.

The Egyptian Jews who lived in the district called Onion, however, refused to let Antipater, Mithridates, and their soldiers pass through on their way to Caesar. But Antipater persuaded them to join their side, since they belonged to the same people. He showed them letters from Hyrcanus the high priest, urging them to make friends with Caesar and provide his army with money and whatever supplies it needed. When they saw that Antipater and the high priest shared the same purpose, they did as he asked.

The Jews near Memphis heard that their countrymen had joined Caesar, so they invited Mithridates to come to them as well. He went there and welcomed them into his army.

After Mithridates had crossed the whole region called the Delta, he fought the enemy near a place known as the Jewish Camp. Mithridates commanded the right wing, while Antipater led the left. When the battle began, Mithridates's wing gave way and faced serious danger. Antipater had already defeated the enemy opposing him, so he hurried along the shore with his own soldiers to help Mithridates. He rescued him and drove the Egyptians who had gained the advantage into flight. Antipater also captured their camp and pursued them. Then he called back Mithridates, who had been defeated and had retreated a great distance.

Eight hundred of Mithridates's soldiers fell, while Antipater lost fifty. Mithridates sent Caesar an account of the battle and openly declared that Antipater had won the victory and saved his life. Caesar praised Antipater and relied on him throughout the rest of the war, assigning him the most dangerous tasks. Antipater was also wounded in one of the battles.

After Caesar had ended the war and sailed to Syria, he honored Antipater and confirmed Hyrcanus as high priest. He also granted Antipater Roman citizenship and exemption from taxes throughout the empire. Many writers report that Hyrcanus accompanied Antipater on this expedition and went with him to Egypt.

Strabo of Cappadocia confirms this in a passage he attributes to Asinius: "After Mithridates invaded Egypt, Hyrcanus the high priest of the Jews went with him."

In another passage, Strabo quotes Hypsicrates: "Mithridates first set out alone. But Antipater, who managed the affairs of the Jews, was summoned by him to Ascalon. Antipater had prepared three thousand soldiers to go with him and persuaded the other rulers of the region to join as well. Hyrcanus the high priest also took part in the expedition."

This is what Strabo says.

At this time, Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, came before Caesar and mourned his father's fate. He accused Antipater of arranging Aristobulus's death by poison and said that Scipio had beheaded his brother. Antigonus asked Caesar to pity him, since he had been driven from the rule that belonged to him. He also accused Hyrcanus and Antipater of governing the nation by force and mistreating him.

Antipater was present and answered these charges. He showed that Antigonus and his followers were troublemakers who sought to stir up rebellion. He reminded Caesar of the difficult service he had given during the wars and described what he had witnessed himself. Aristobulus, he said, had rightly been taken to Rome because he was an enemy of the Romans and could never be made their friend. His brother had received no more than he deserved from Scipio, since he had been caught committing robberies. Scipio had punished him justly, not through violence or injustice.

After hearing Antipater's speech, Caesar appointed Hyrcanus high priest and offered Antipater any position of authority he chose. Antipater therefore became procurator of Judea. When Hyrcanus asked permission to rebuild the walls of his city, which Pompey had destroyed, Caesar granted his request. He sent the order to the consuls in Rome so they could have it engraved on the Capitol.

The Senate's decree read as follows:

"Lucius Valerius, son of Lucius, the praetor, brought this matter before the Senate on the Ides of December, in the Temple of Concord. Those present when the decree was recorded were Lucius Coponius, son of Lucius, of the Colline tribe, and Papirius, of the Quirine tribe.

"The ambassadors of the Jews, Alexander son of Jason, Numenius son of Antiochus, and Alexander son of Dositheus, honorable and worthy men, came to renew the treaty of goodwill and friendship that had previously existed between the Jews and the Romans. They also brought a gold shield valued at fifty thousand pieces of gold as a token of their alliance. They asked us to send letters to the free cities and to the kings, so that their country and harbors might remain at peace and no one might harm them.

"The Senate therefore agreed to make a treaty of friendship and goodwill with them, to grant them whatever they needed, and to accept the shield they had brought. This decree was made in the ninth year of Hyrcanus, high priest and ethnarch, in the month of Panemus."

Hyrcanus also received honors from the Athenians because he had helped them on many occasions. When they wrote to him, they sent the following decree:

"During the presidency and priesthood of Dionysius, son of Esculapius, on the fifth day of the latter part of the month of Panemus, the Athenians issued this decree to their commanders. Agathocles was archon, and Eucles, son of Menander of Alimusia, was secretary.

"In the month of Munychion, on the eleventh day of the presidency, the council of presidents met in the theater. Dorotheus the high priest and his fellow presidents put the matter before the people. Dionysius, son of Dionysius, delivered the motion.

"Since Hyrcanus, son of Alexander, high priest and ethnarch of the Jews, continues to show goodwill toward our people as a whole and toward each of our citizens, and since he treats them with great kindness, we decree the following. Whenever Athenians visit him, whether as ambassadors or for their own affairs, he receives them graciously and sees that they return safely. We have heard several reports of his kindness in the past. Now, at the request of Theodosius, son of Theodorus, who reminded the people of this man's virtue and of his desire to do all the good he can for us, we decree that he receive a gold crown, the customary reward under the law, and that a bronze statue of him be set up in the Temple of Demos and the Graces.

"Let the crown be announced publicly in the theater during the Dionysian festival, while the new tragedies are performed, and also at the Panathenaic, Eleusinian, and Gymnastic festivals. While Hyrcanus remains our friend and continues to show goodwill toward us, the commanders shall honor and favor him in every way for his affection and generosity. By treating him in this way, our people will show that they welcome kindness and repay it suitably. These honors may also encourage him to continue his friendship with us.

"Let the Athenians choose ambassadors to carry this decree to him, ask him to accept the honors we have granted, and encourage him to continue doing good for our city."

This is enough to show the honors that the Romans and the people of Athens granted to Hyrcanus.

CHAPTER 9

How Antipater Entrusted Galilee to Herod and Jerusalem to Phasaelus, and How Herod Was Accused Before Hyrcanus Because the Jews Envied Antipater

After Caesar had settled the affairs of Syria, he sailed away. Antipater escorted him out of the province and then returned to Judea. He immediately rebuilt the wall Pompey had torn down. He also calmed the unrest in the country, warning the people and urging them to remain peaceful.

He told them that if they supported Hyrcanus, they could live in peace and enjoy their property. But if they pursued wealth through rebellion, they would find Antipater a harsh master instead of a kind governor, and Hyrcanus a tyrant instead of a king. The Romans, with Caesar, would become their enemies rather than their rulers, since they would never allow the man they had appointed to govern to be removed. After addressing the people, Antipater took charge of the country's affairs.

Hyrcanus was slow and inactive, so Antipater appointed his eldest son, Phasaelus, governor of Jerusalem and the surrounding area. He gave Galilee to his next son, Herod, who was only fifteen years old. Herod's youth did not hold him back. He was bold and ambitious, and he soon found a chance to prove himself.

A bandit leader named Hezekiah was raiding the neighboring parts of Syria with a large group of followers. Herod seized and killed Hezekiah, along with many of the other bandits. The Syrians praised Herod because they had long wanted their country rid of these robbers, and he had cleared the region of them. In their towns and villages, they sang songs in his honor, saying he had brought them peace and let them enjoy their property without fear.

As a result, Herod came to the attention of Sextus Caesar, a relative of the great Caesar and then governor of Syria. Meanwhile, Herod's brother Phasaelus envied his success and wanted to earn equal praise. While governing Jerusalem, Phasaelus won the people's goodwill and handled the city's affairs responsibly. Through the conduct of his sons, Antipater gained the respect and honors usually given to a king, as though he ruled the country outright. Yet his new status did not lessen his kindness or loyalty toward Hyrcanus.

The leading Jews grew hostile toward Antipater when they saw how much the people favored him and his sons, and how much wealth they received from Judea and from Hyrcanus's own treasury. Antipater had become friends with the Roman rulers. After persuading Hyrcanus to send them money, he took the funds for himself and presented them as his own gift rather than Hyrcanus's.

Hyrcanus learned what Antipater had done, but took no action. In fact, he seemed pleased with the arrangement. The leading Jews, however, were afraid because Herod was forceful, daring, and eager to rule as a tyrant. They went to Hyrcanus and accused Antipater openly.

"How long will you tolerate these actions?" they asked. "Can't you see that Antipater and his sons have already taken control of the government, leaving you only the title of king? Don't ignore what is happening or think you can escape danger by neglecting yourself and your kingdom. Antipater and his sons are no longer merely managing your affairs. They are plainly the rulers.

"Herod, Antipater's son, has killed Hezekiah and his men. He has broken our law, which forbids killing anyone, even a wicked man, unless the Sanhedrin has first condemned him to death. Yet Herod dared to do this without your authority."

Hyrcanus listened to their accusations and gave in to their demands. The mothers of the men Herod had killed also stirred his anger. They went to the temple every day, urging the king and the people to bring Herod before the Sanhedrin.

Moved by their complaints, Hyrcanus summoned Herod to answer the charges. Herod's father advised him to come with a guard for his protection. First, Herod was to put Galilee in the best possible condition for himself. Then he should appear for trial with enough men to keep him safe on the journey, but not so many that it seemed he meant to threaten Hyrcanus.

At the same time, Sextus Caesar wrote to Hyrcanus, ordering him to clear Herod and dismiss the case. He also threatened Hyrcanus if he refused. This letter led Hyrcanus to protect Herod from harm at the hands of the Sanhedrin, for he loved him as a son.

When Herod appeared before the Sanhedrin, his armed escort frightened the members. None of his accusers dared repeat their charges. The court fell silent, and no one knew what to do.

Then Sameas, a righteous man who feared no one, stood up and spoke:

"Members of the court, and you, our king, I have never seen a case like this, and I doubt any of you can recall one. Everyone summoned before this Sanhedrin comes humbly, showing fear and seeking our pity. He appears with uncombed hair and in mourning clothes. Yet Herod, accused of murder and called to answer a grave charge, stands here in purple, with his hair neatly trimmed and armed men around him. If we condemn him according to the law, he may kill us and escape the sentence by force.

"I don't blame Herod for protecting himself. He cares more for his own safety than for the law. I blame you and the king for allowing him to appear this way. Remember, God is great. The man you are about to release for Hyrcanus's sake will one day punish both you and the king."

Sameas's prediction proved true. After Herod became king, he killed every member of the Sanhedrin and Hyrcanus himself, sparing only Sameas. Herod respected him for his righteousness. Later, when Herod and Sosius besieged the city, Sameas urged the people to admit Herod, warning them that their sins would keep them from escaping his power. These events will be described in their proper place.

When Hyrcanus saw that the members of the Sanhedrin were ready to condemn Herod to death, he postponed the trial. He then sent word to Herod in private, advising him to flee the city and save himself. Herod went to Damascus, as though escaping from the king. After meeting with Sextus Caesar and securing his own position, he decided that if the Sanhedrin summoned him again, he would refuse to appear.

The members of the Sanhedrin were outraged and tried to convince Hyrcanus that these events threatened his rule. Hyrcanus understood the danger, but he was so weak and foolish that he could do nothing.

Sextus later appointed Herod general of the army of Coele-Syria, selling him the position for money. Hyrcanus feared Herod would attack him, and soon his fears seemed justified. Angry that he had been summoned to trial, Herod marched with an army against Hyrcanus. But Antipater and Phasaelus met him and stopped him from attacking Jerusalem. They calmed his anger and urged him to make no move beyond threatening the people.

They reminded him that Hyrcanus had given him his position. Herod, they said, should remember that he had been released without a sentence and should be grateful to Hyrcanus, rather than dwell only on the insult of being summoned. His charge had come from wicked advisers, not from Hyrcanus himself, and had caused suspicion of harsh treatment without any real harm.

They also warned him that God decides the outcome of war, and battle is uncertain. Herod should not assume he would defeat the king who had supported him and granted him many favors, especially when Hyrcanus had done him no serious injury. Herod accepted their advice. He decided that displaying his strength before the people was enough for the sake of his future ambitions, and he took no further action. Such was the state of affairs in Judea at that time.

CHAPTER 10

The Honors the Jews Received and the Alliances They Made with the Romans and Other Nations

When Caesar returned to Rome, he was preparing to sail to Africa to fight Scipio and Cato. At that time, Hyrcanus sent ambassadors to him and asked him to confirm the treaty of friendship and mutual alliance between them.

I think it necessary here to describe the honors the Romans and their emperor granted our people, as well as the agreements of mutual aid they made with us. Let all people know the esteem that the kings of Asia and Europe held for us, and how fully they trusted our courage and loyalty. Some may doubt what the Persians and Macedonians wrote about us because their records are not widely available. They are kept among our own people and certain other nations, rather than in public places. The Roman decrees, however, cannot be disputed. They were stored in public places in the cities, remain in the Capitol, and were engraved on bronze pillars. Julius Caesar also had a bronze pillar erected for the Jews at Alexandria, where he publicly declared them citizens of that city.

I will use these records to prove what I have said. Here I set down the decrees of the Senate and Julius Caesar concerning Hyrcanus and our nation.

"Gaius Julius Caesar, imperator, high priest, and dictator for the second time, to the magistrates, Senate, and people of Sidon, greetings. If you are well, that is good. I and the army are well.

"I have sent you a copy of the decree entered on the public records concerning Hyrcanus, son of Alexander, high priest and ethnarch of the Jews. Have it placed among your public records, and display it openly on a bronze tablet in both Greek and Latin. The decree reads as follows:

"'I, Julius Caesar, imperator for the second time and high priest, have issued this decree with the Senate's approval. Hyrcanus, son of Alexander the Jew, has shown loyalty and diligence in our affairs, both now and in the past, in peace and in war, as many of our generals have testified. He came to our aid in the recent Alexandrian war with fifteen hundred soldiers. When I sent him to Mithridates, he showed greater courage than anyone else in the army.

"'For these reasons, I decree that Hyrcanus, son of Alexander, and his children shall be ethnarchs of the Jews and shall hold the Jewish high priesthood forever, according to the customs of their ancestors. He and his sons shall be our allies, and each shall be counted among our special friends. They shall retain every privilege attached to the high priesthood and every favor granted to them in the past. If any question about Jewish customs arises in the future, Hyrcanus shall decide it. They shall not be required to provide winter quarters for us, nor shall anyone demand money from them.'"

"The decrees of Gaius Caesar, consul, concerning the grants and decisions made, are these:

"'Hyrcanus and his children shall rule the Jewish nation and receive the income from the places granted to them. As high priest and ethnarch of the Jews, Hyrcanus shall defend those who suffer injustice. Ambassadors shall be sent to Hyrcanus, son of Alexander, high priest of the Jews, to discuss a treaty of friendship and mutual assistance.

"'A bronze tablet bearing these terms shall be displayed publicly in the Capitol, Sidon, Tyre, Ascalon, and the temple, with the text engraved in Roman and Greek letters. The decree shall also be sent to the quaestors and praetors of the various cities and to the friends of the Jews. The ambassadors shall receive gifts, and copies of these decrees shall be sent everywhere.'"

"Gaius Caesar, imperator, dictator, and consul, has granted that, in recognition of Hyrcanus's honor, courage, and kindness, and for the benefit of the Senate and people of Rome, Hyrcanus, son of Alexander, and his children shall be high priests and priests of Jerusalem and the Jewish nation. They shall hold this office under the same rights and laws as their ancestors."

"Gaius Caesar, consul for the fifth time, has decreed that the Jews may possess Jerusalem and surround the city with walls. Hyrcanus, son of Alexander, high priest and ethnarch of the Jews, shall retain it as he sees fit.

"'Every second year in the Sabbatical cycle, when the land is leased, the Jews may deduct one kor from their tribute. Their tribute shall not be farmed out, and they shall not be required to pay the same amount every year.'"

"Gaius Caesar, imperator for the second time, has decreed that the whole land of the Jews, except Joppa, shall pay an annual tribute for the city of Jerusalem. They shall make no payment in the seventh year, which they call the Sabbatical year, because they neither gather fruit from their trees nor sow their fields. In Sidon, during the second year of the Sabbatical cycle, they shall pay one quarter of the produce sown. They shall also pay Hyrcanus and his sons the same tithes they paid their ancestors.

"'No governor, deputy, or ambassador may raise auxiliary troops within the borders of Judea. Soldiers shall not demand money from the Jews for winter quarters or under any other pretext. The Jews shall be free from every kind of injury, and they shall retain all property they now own or possess, as well as anything they may buy in the future.

"'The city of Joppa, which belonged to the Jews when they first entered into a treaty of friendship with the Romans, shall again belong to them as before. Hyrcanus, son of Alexander, and his sons shall receive as tribute from those who occupy the land twenty thousand six hundred and seventy-five modii each year, in return for the land and for what they export annually to Sidon. No tribute shall be paid in the seventh year, the Sabbatical year, when they neither plow nor gather the produce of their trees.

"'Hyrcanus and the Jews shall also possess the villages in the Great Plain that Hyrcanus and his ancestors formerly held, with the same privileges as before. The original regulations concerning the Jews and their high priests shall remain in force, and the Jews shall retain the benefits previously granted by the people and the Senate. They shall also enjoy the same privileges in Lydda.

"'The Senate further decrees that Hyrcanus the ethnarch and the Jews shall retain those places, lands, and villages that once belonged to the kings of Syria and Phoenicia, Rome's allies, and that those kings granted to them as gifts.

"'Hyrcanus, his sons, and the ambassadors they send to us may sit among the senators to watch contests between gladiators and fights with wild animals. When they request an audience, the dictator or master of the horse shall bring them before the Senate. After the Senate has decided their affairs, it shall send them its answer within ten days at most.'"

"Gaius Caesar, imperator, dictator for the fourth time, consul for the fifth time, and declared dictator for life, made this statement about the rights and privileges of Hyrcanus, son of Alexander, high priest and ethnarch of the Jews:

"'The imperators who governed the provinces before me have testified before the Senate and people of Rome to the merits of Hyrcanus, high priest of the Jews, and of the Jewish people. The people and Senate thanked them for their testimony. We should now remember the same facts and arrange for the Senate and people of Rome to repay Hyrcanus, the Jewish nation, and Hyrcanus's sons in a manner worthy of the goodwill they have shown us and the benefits they have given us.'"

"Julius Gaius, praetor [consul] of Rome, to the magistrates, Senate, and people of the Parians, greetings.

"The Jews of Delos and some other Jews living there have told us, in the presence of your ambassadors, that one of your decrees forbids them to follow the customs of their ancestors and practice their religious worship. I do not approve of decrees against our friends and allies that prevent them from observing their customs or collecting contributions for common meals and holy festivals. They are allowed to do these things even in Rome. Indeed, when Gaius Caesar, our imperator and consul, forbade the Bacchic groups to meet in the city, he made an exception for these Jews alone, allowing them both to collect contributions and to hold common meals.

"'Therefore, while I prohibit other Bacchic groups from gathering, I permit these Jews to assemble according to the customs and laws of their ancestors and to continue observing them. If you have issued any decree against our friends and allies, you should repeal it, in recognition of their courage and goodwill toward us.'"

After Gaius was killed, Marcus Antonius and Publius Dolabella became consuls. They called the Senate together, brought Hyrcanus's ambassadors before it, and discussed the matters they had raised. They then made a treaty of friendship with them. The Senate also voted to grant all their requests.

I include the decree itself so that readers may have direct proof of what I have said. It reads as follows:

"This decree of the Senate was copied from the treasury, from the public records kept by the quaestors, when Quintus Rutilius and Gaius Cornelius were quaestors. It was taken from the second tablet of the first section, on the third day before the Ides of April, in the Temple of Concord.

"Those present when the decree was written were Lucius Calpurnius Piso of the Menenian tribe; Servius Papinius Potitus of the Lemonian tribe; Gaius Caninius Rebilius of the Terentine tribe; Publius Tidetius; Lucius Apulinus, son of Lucius, of the Sergian tribe; Flavius, son of Lucius, of the Lemonian tribe; Publius Platius, son of Publius, of the Papyran tribe; Marcus Acilius, son of Marcus, of the Maecian tribe; Lucius Erucius, son of Lucius, of the Stellatine tribe; Marcus Quintus Plancillus, son of Marcus, of the Pollian tribe; and Publius Serius.

"The consuls Publius Dolabella and Marcus Antonius referred the following matter to the Senate: Gaius Caesar had issued decrees concerning the Jews by vote of the Senate, but those decrees had not yet been entered in the treasury. The consuls and the Senate therefore wish them to be entered in the public records and delivered to the city quaestors, who shall have them copied onto the official tablets.

"This was done before the fifth day before the Ides of February, in the Temple of Concord. Hyrcanus the high priest sent these ambassadors: Lysimachus, son of Pausanias; Alexander, son of Theodorus; Patroclus, son of Chereas; and Jonathan, son of Onias."

Hyrcanus also sent one of these ambassadors to Dolabella, who was then governor of Asia. He asked Dolabella to excuse the Jews from military service, preserve their ancestral customs, and allow them to live according to those customs.

After receiving Hyrcanus's letter, Dolabella acted without delay. He sent a letter to all the people of Asia, especially the city of Ephesus, the province's capital, concerning the Jews. A copy follows:

"When Artermon was prytanis, on the first day of the month Leneon, Dolabella, imperator, to the Senate, magistrates, and people of Ephesus, greetings.

"Alexander, son of Theodorus, ambassador of Hyrcanus, son of Alexander, high priest and ethnarch of the Jews, appeared before me. He explained that his people could not serve in the army because they are forbidden to carry weapons or travel on the Sabbath, and because they cannot obtain the kinds of food they have eaten according to their ancestral customs.

"'I therefore excuse them from military service, as earlier governors have done. I also permit them to follow their ancestral customs, to gather for religious observances as their law requires, and to collect the offerings needed for sacrifices. I order you to send this decree to every city under your authority.'"

These were the privileges Dolabella granted our people in response to Hyrcanus's embassy. The consul Lucius issued this decree:

"'I have exempted from military service the Jews who are Roman citizens and follow the Jewish religious rites while living at Ephesus, because their religious obligations prevent them from serving.'

"This order was issued before the twelfth day before the Kalends of October, when Lucius Lentulus and Gaius Marcellus were consuls. Those present were Titus Appius Balbus, son of Titus, a lieutenant of the Horatian tribe; Titus Tongius, son of Titus, of the Crustumine tribe; Quintus Resius, son of Quintus; Titus Pompeius Longinus, son of Titus; Gaius Servilius, son of Gaius, of the Terentine tribe; Bracchus, military tribune; Publius Lucius Gallus, son of Publius, of the Veturian tribe; Gaius Sentius, son of Gaius, of the Sabbatine tribe; and Titus Atilius Bulbus, son of Titus, lieutenant and deputy praetor.

"To the magistrates, Senate, and people of Ephesus, greetings. Consul Lucius Lentulus exempted the Jews of Asia from military service at my request. Some time later, I made the same request to the imperator Phanius and Lucius Antonius, the deputy quaestor, and they granted the exemption as well. I order you to see that no one troubles them.'"

The decree of the people of Delos:

"'The praetors' response, issued when Beotus was archon, on the twentieth day of the month Thargeleon:

"'While Marcus Piso, the lieutenant who was also responsible for selecting soldiers, lived in our city, he summoned us and many other citizens. He ordered that if any Jews here are Roman citizens, no one should trouble them about military service, because consul Cornelius Lentulus exempted the Jews from service on account of their religious obligations. You must therefore obey the praetor.'"

The people of Sardis issued a similar decree concerning us.

"Gaius Phanius, son of Gaius, imperator and consul, to the magistrates of Cos, greetings.

"I want you to know that the Jewish ambassadors have appeared before me and asked for copies of the Senate's decrees concerning them. I have appended those decrees. I order you to respect the Senate's decision and help these men pass safely through your territory on their way home."

Consul Lucius Lentulus issued this statement:

"'I have released from military service the Jews who are Roman citizens, follow their religious rites, and observe the laws of the Jews at Ephesus, because of their religious obligations. This order was issued before the thirteenth day before the Kalends of October.'"

"Lucius Antonius, son of Marcus, deputy quaestor and deputy praetor, to the magistrates, Senate, and people of Sardis, greetings.

"The Jews who are our fellow citizens of Rome came before me and explained that they have an assembly of their own, established according to the laws of their ancestors and maintained from the beginning. They also have a place of their own where they settle their cases and disputes. At their request, I ruled that these rights should remain in force and that they should be permitted to continue as before."

Marcus Publius, son of Spurius, Marcus, son of Marcus, and Lucius, son of Publius, issued this statement:

"'We went to the proconsul and reported the request made by Dositheus, son of Cleopatrida of Alexandria. He asked the proconsul, if he approved, to release from military service the Jews who were Roman citizens and observed the rites of the Jewish religion, because of their religious obligations. The proconsul released them. This was done before the thirteenth day before the Kalends of October.'"

"In the month of Quintilis, when Lucius Lentulus and Gaius Marcellus were consuls, the following men were present: Titus Appius Balbus, son of Titus, lieutenant of the Horatian tribe; Titus Tongius of the Crustumine tribe; Quintus Resius, son of Quintus; Titus Pompeius, son of Titus; Cornelius Longinus; Gaius Servilius Bracchus, son of Gaius, military tribune of the Terentine tribe; Publius Clusius Gallus, son of Publius, of the Veturian tribe; Gaius Teutius, son of Gaius, military tribune of the Aemilian tribe; Sextus Atilius Serranus, son of Sextus, of the Esquiline tribe; Gaius Pompeius, son of Gaius, of the Sabbatine tribe; Titus Appius Menander, son of Titus; Publius Servilius Strabo, son of Publius; Lucius Paccius Capito, son of Lucius, of the Colline tribe; Aulus Furius Tertius, son of Aulus; and Appius Menus.

"In their presence, Lentulus issued this decree:

"'Before my tribunal, I released from military service the Jews who are Roman citizens and observe the sacred rites of the Jews at Ephesus, because of their religious obligations.'"

"The magistrates of Laodicea to Gaius Rubilius, son of Gaius, consul, greetings.

"Sopater, ambassador of Hyrcanus the high priest, delivered to us a letter from you. It informed us that ambassadors had come from Hyrcanus, high priest of the Jews, carrying a letter about their people. They asked that the Jews be allowed to observe the Sabbath and other sacred rites according to the laws of their ancestors, and that no one subject them to commands that would prevent this, since they are our friends and allies. They also asked that no one harm them in our provinces.

"The Trallians who were present opposed these requests and rejected the decrees. Yet you ordered that the decrees be obeyed and asked us to take notice of your letter on this matter. We have therefore received your letter and placed it separately among our public records, as you instructed. We will also see that no complaint is made against us concerning the other matters in your letter."

"Publius Servilius, son of Publius, of the Galban tribe, proconsul, to the magistrates, Senate, and people of Miletus, greetings.

"Prytanis, son of Hermes and a citizen of your city, came to me at Tralles while I was holding court. He reported that you had acted toward the Jews contrary to my judgment. You had forbidden them to observe the Sabbath, perform the sacred rites of their ancestors, and manage the produce of their land according to their ancient customs. He also said that he had announced your decree as your laws required.

"'I want you to know that after hearing both sides, I ruled that the Jews must not be prevented from following their customs.'"

The decree of the people of Pergamum:

"'When Cratippus was prytanis, on the first day of the month Desius, the praetors issued this decree:

"'The Romans follow the conduct of their ancestors by facing dangers for the common safety of all people. They work to secure happiness and lasting peace for their allies and friends. The Jewish nation and its high priest, Hyrcanus, sent them these worthy and honorable ambassadors: Strato, son of Theodatus; Apollonius, son of Alexander; Aeneas, son of Antipater; Aristobulus, son of Amyntas; and Sosipater, son of Philip. The ambassadors gave a detailed account of their people's affairs.

"'The Senate then decreed, in response to their requests, that King Antiochus, son of Antiochus, must not harm the Jews, Rome's allies. The fortresses, harbors, lands, and all other property he took from them must be returned. The Jews may export their goods from their own harbors. No king or people may export goods from Judea or its harbors without paying customs, except Ptolemy, king of Alexandria, because he is our ally and friend. As the Jews requested, the garrison at Joppa must be removed.

"'Lucius Pettius, one of our senators, an honorable and worthy man, ordered us to carry out the Senate's decree and make sure the ambassadors could return home safely. We therefore admitted Theodorus to our Senate and assembly and received the letter and Senate decree from him.

"'Theodorus spoke with great devotion about the Jews. He described Hyrcanus's virtue and generosity, and how Hyrcanus helped everyone, especially those who came to him. We placed the letter in our public records and decreed that, since we too are allies of the Romans, we would do everything in our power for the Jews, in keeping with the Senate's decision.

"'Theodorus, who delivered the letter, asked our praetors to send Hyrcanus a copy of our decree and ambassadors to express our people's goodwill toward him. He also asked them to urge Hyrcanus and his people to preserve and strengthen their friendship with us and to be ready to grant us other benefits, as we may rightly expect to repay them in kind. He asked them to remember that our ancestors were friendly toward the Jews even in the time of Abraham, the father of all the Hebrews, as we have also found written in our public records.'"

The decree of the people of Halicarnassus:

"'When Memnon, son of Orestidas by birth and of Euonymus by adoption, was priest, on the * * * day of the month Aristerion, the people issued this decree in response to a proposal by Marcus Alexander:

"'We have always shown great respect for devotion to God and for holy things. We also seek to follow the Roman people, who have helped all nations. The Romans have written to us about a treaty of friendship and mutual aid between the Jews and our city, and have asked that the Jews be allowed to observe their religious duties, customary festivals, and assemblies.

"'We therefore decree that any Jewish men and women who wish to do so may observe the Sabbath and perform their religious duties according to Jewish law. They may also establish places of prayer by the sea, as their ancestors did. Any magistrate or private citizen who prevents them from doing so shall pay a fine to the city.'"

The decree of the people of Sardis:

"'The Senate and people issued this decree in response to a proposal from the praetors:

"'The Jews who live in our city as fellow citizens have long received many benefits from our people. They have now come before the Senate and asked that, since the Senate and people of Rome have restored their law and freedom, they may meet according to their ancient legal customs and face no legal action for doing so. They also asked for a place where they may gather with their wives and children and offer prayers and sacrifices to God, as their ancestors did.

"'The Senate and people decree that the Jews may gather on the days appointed by their law and conduct their affairs according to their own customs. The praetors shall set aside a place they consider suitable for their meetings and homes. Those responsible for supplying the city shall also arrange for the import of foods the Jews consider fit to eat.'"

The decree of the people of Ephesus:

"'When Menophilus was prytanis, on the first day of the month Artemisius, the people issued this decree. Nicanor, son of Euphemus, presented it in response to a proposal by the praetors:

"'The Jews who live in this city asked Marcus Julius Pompeius, son of Brutus, the proconsul, to let them observe the Sabbath and follow all the customs of their ancestors without hindrance. The praetor granted their request.

"'The Senate and people therefore decree that, in this matter concerning the Romans, no one may prevent the Jews from observing the Sabbath or fine them for doing so. They may conduct all their affairs according to their own laws.'"

Many other decrees of the Roman Senate and imperators were issued in favor of Hyrcanus and our nation, in addition to those given here. The cities also passed further decrees, and their praetors sent replies to letters concerning our rights and privileges. Those who are not hostile to what we have written can judge from these examples that the other records say the same.

We have offered clear evidence of our friendship with the Romans. The records are engraved on bronze columns and tablets in the Capitol, where they remain to this day. I have not copied every decree because doing so would be unnecessary and tedious. No reasonable person can doubt the friendship we shared with the Romans, since so many of their decrees confirm it. Nor should anyone doubt our account of the other decrees, since the examples presented here establish the same facts. This is enough to show the friendship and alliance we had with the Romans at that time.

CHAPTER 11

How Marcus Took Sextus's Place After Sextus Was Killed by Bassus's Treachery; How Cassius Came to Syria After Caesar's Death and Oppressed Judea; and How Malichus Murdered Antipater and Was Killed by Herod

At about this time, Syria fell into great disorder. Cecilius Bassus, a supporter of Pompey, plotted against Sextus Caesar and killed him. He then took command of Sextus's army and seized control of public affairs. A major war broke out near Apamea, where Caesar's generals marched against Bassus with cavalry and infantry. Antipater sent them aid, including his sons, because he remembered Caesar's kindness and believed that Caesar's murderer deserved punishment.

The war dragged on for a long time. Then Marcus came from Rome to take over Sextus's command. Meanwhile, Caesar was killed by Cassius and Brutus in the Senate after holding power for three years and six months. I have described that event elsewhere.

After Caesar's death, war began, and the leading men scattered in different directions to raise armies. Cassius left Rome and came to Syria to take command of the troops at Apamea. He lifted the siege there and persuaded both Bassus and Marcus to join his side.

Cassius then traveled through the cities, gathering weapons and soldiers while imposing heavy taxes. Judea suffered most, as he demanded seven hundred talents from the country. Seeing how unsettled matters had become, Antipater divided the tax collection among several men, including his two sons. He assigned part of the sum to Malichus, who was hostile toward him, and the rest to others.

Herod collected the amount required from Galilee before anyone else, which won him Cassius's favor. Herod thought it wise to build goodwill with the Romans, even at others' expense. By contrast, Cassius enslaved the officials of other cities and their citizens. He reduced four cities to slavery: the two most powerful, Gophna and Emmaus, along with Lydia and Thamna.

Cassius was so angry with Malichus that he nearly killed him after Malichus attacked him. However, Hyrcanus, acting through Antipater, sent Cassius one hundred talents of his own money and calmed his anger.

After Cassius left Judea, Malichus began plotting against Antipater. He believed Antipater's death would secure Hyrcanus's rule. Antipater learned of the scheme and withdrew beyond the Jordan, where he gathered an army of Arabs and his own countrymen.

Malichus was crafty, however, and denied that he had plotted against Antipater. He swore to Antipater and his sons that he was innocent. He argued that he could never have planned such a deed while Phasaelus commanded a garrison in Jerusalem and Herod held the weapons of war.

Antipater saw how troubled Malichus was, so he made peace with him and reached an agreement. Marcus was then governor of Syria. When he saw that Malichus was stirring up trouble in Judea, he came close to killing him. Yet Antipater pleaded for Malichus, and Marcus spared him.

Antipater did not realize that by saving Malichus, he had saved the man who would kill him. Cassius and Marcus had raised an army and placed Herod in full command. They appointed him general of the forces in Coele-Syria and gave him a fleet, cavalry, and infantry. They also promised to make him king of Judea once the war ended. A conflict had already begun between Antony and the younger Caesar.

Malichus feared Antipater above all. He paid Hyrcanus's cupbearer, who was hosting both men at a feast, to poison Antipater. After Antipater died, Malichus armed his men and took control of the city's affairs.

When Herod and Phasaelus learned of the plot against their father, they were furious. Malichus denied the charge and claimed he knew nothing about the murder. Herod wanted to avenge their father's death at once and marched against Malichus with an army. Phasaelus, the elder brother, thought it wiser to capture Malichus by trickery, so they would not appear to have started a civil war. He accepted Malichus's defense and pretended to believe that he had played no part in Antipater's violent death. He also built a fine monument for their father.

Herod went to Samaria. Finding its people in great distress, he raised their spirits and settled their disputes.

Soon afterward, as a festival approached, Herod entered the city with his soldiers. Malichus grew frightened and persuaded Hyrcanus not to let Herod enter. Hyrcanus agreed, claiming that a crowd of outsiders should not be admitted while the people were preparing for purification.

Herod paid little attention to the messengers sent to him. He entered the city at night, alarming Malichus. Still, Malichus kept up his pretense. He wept loudly for Antipater and mourned him as a friend. Herod and his companions chose not to expose Malichus's hypocrisy in public. Instead, they showed him signs of friendship so he would not suspect them.

Herod sent word to Cassius about his father's murder. Cassius knew Malichus's character and replied that Herod should avenge Antipater. He also secretly instructed his commanders at Tyre to help Herod carry out this just act.

After Cassius captured Laodicea, the men went to him with wreaths and money. Herod thought he could have Malichus punished while they were there. Malichus, however, feared what might happen. His son was being held as a hostage at Tyre, so Malichus went there, intending to rescue him in secret and then march into Judea. Since Cassius was preparing to move against Antony, Malichus hoped to stir the country into revolt and seize the government for himself.

Providence frustrated his plan. Herod was shrewd and saw what Malichus intended. He sent a servant ahead, supposedly to prepare a feast for the group, as he had said he would host them there. In reality, he sent the servant to the army commanders and persuaded them to attack Malichus with their daggers. They met Malichus near the city, by the seashore, and stabbed him.

Hyrcanus was so shocked that he could not speak. When he finally recovered, he asked Herod what had happened and who had killed Malichus. Herod replied that Cassius had ordered the killing. Hyrcanus approved, saying Malichus was wicked and had plotted against his own country. This was the punishment Malichus received for his treacherous murder of Antipater.

After Cassius left Syria, unrest broke out in Judea. Felix, whom Cassius had left in Jerusalem with an army, suddenly attacked Phasaelus, while the people also took up arms. Herod went to Fabius, the prefect of Damascus, hoping to rush to his brother's aid. But an illness prevented him from going. Phasaelus managed to defeat Felix on his own, shut him up in a tower, and then release him under certain conditions.

Phasaelus also accused Hyrcanus of supporting their enemies, despite all the benefits he had received from the brothers. Malichus's brother had persuaded several places to revolt and stationed garrisons in them, especially at Masada, the strongest fortress in the region.

By then, Herod had recovered. He came and took back all the places Felix had seized, then released him under agreed conditions.

CHAPTER 12

Herod Drives Antigonus, the Son of Aristobulus, Out of Judea and Wins Antony's Favor by Sending Him Money. Antony, Now in Syria, Refuses to Hear Those Who Accuse Herod. Antony's Letter to the Tyrians

Ptolemy, the son of Mennaeus, brought Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, back into Judea. Antigonus had already raised an army and had won Fabius over with money, helped by their family connection. Marion also gave him aid. Cassius had left Marion in control of Tyre, where he ruled like a tyrant. Cassius himself had taken Syria and held it by force.

Marion marched into neighboring Galilee, seized three fortresses, and placed garrisons in them. When Herod arrived, however, he took the fortresses back. He dismissed the Tyrian soldiers with courtesy and even gave some of them gifts out of goodwill toward their city.

After settling these matters, Herod went to meet Antigonus. He fought him, defeated him, and drove him out of Judea as soon as he crossed the border. When Herod reached Jerusalem, Hyrcanus and the people welcomed him with garlands. Herod had already formed a family bond with Hyrcanus by marrying one of his descendants. He later married Alexander's daughter, the granddaughter of Hyrcanus and the daughter of Aristobulus, and had three sons and two daughters with her. Before that, he had married Doris, a woman from a less distinguished family among his own people. She bore his eldest son, Antipater.

As others have recorded, Antony and Caesar defeated Cassius near Philippi. After the victory, Caesar went to Italy, while Antony set out for Asia. When Antony reached Bithynia, ambassadors from many places came to meet him. Leading Jews also arrived to accuse Phasaelus and Herod. They claimed that Hyrcanus only seemed to rule, while the brothers held all the real power.

Antony, however, showed great favor to Herod, who had come to defend himself against the accusations. As a result, Herod's opponents could not even get a hearing. Herod had won Antony's favor with money.

When Antony reached Ephesus, Hyrcanus the high priest and the Jewish people sent him an embassy bearing a gold crown. They asked him to write to the provincial governors and free the Jews whom Cassius had taken captive, even though they had not fought against him. They also asked Antony to restore the territory Cassius had taken from them. Antony judged their requests to be just and at once wrote to Hyrcanus and the Jewish people. At the same time, he sent a decree to the Tyrians with similar instructions.

"Marcus Antonius, imperator, sends greetings to Hyrcanus, high priest and ethnarch of the Jews. If you are well, all is well. I am also well, along with the army.

"Lysimachus, son of Pausanias; Josephus, son of Menneus; and Alexander, son of Theodorus, met me at Ephesus. They renewed the embassy they had previously undertaken in Rome and faithfully carried out the present mission entrusted to them by you and your people. They also made clear the goodwill you hold toward us. Your deeds and words have convinced me of your loyalty, and I know that you live a steadfast and devout life. Therefore, I count you among our friends.

"Those who opposed you and the Roman people spared neither cities nor temples, and they broke the agreements they had confirmed by oath. We took vengeance on them not only because we were at war with them, but also for the sake of all humanity. They had committed grave injustices against men and great offenses against the gods. We believe that, because of their crimes against Caesar, the sun itself withheld its light, unwilling to look upon their wicked deed.

"We have also defeated their plots, which threatened the gods themselves. Macedonia received them, for its climate seemed well suited to their impious and insolent schemes. At Philippi, they gathered a disordered crowd, maddened by hatred of us. They seized a place that suited their purpose and, as if fortified by mountains, held the land all the way to the sea. Only one narrow passage remained open. We won because the gods had condemned their wicked plans.

"Brutus fled as far as Philippi, where we shut him in. He suffered the same fate as Cassius. Now that these men have received their punishment, we expect to enjoy peace and for Asia to be free of war. The peace God has granted us, we also extend to our allies. Through our victory, Asia has recovered from the troubles that afflicted it.

"I will keep you and your people in mind and look after your interests. I have also sent written orders to the cities throughout the provinces: if any free person or enslaved person was sold at auction by Gaius Cassius or his officers, that person must be set free. You may also make use of the favors that Dolabella and I have granted you.

"I forbid the Tyrians to use force against you. I order them to return any Jewish territory they now hold. I have also accepted the crown you sent me."

"Marcus Antonius, imperator, sends greetings to the magistrates, senate, and people of Tyre.

"The ambassadors of Hyrcanus, high priest and ethnarch of the Jews, appeared before me at Ephesus. They told me that you hold part of their territory, which you took while our enemies governed it.

"We have waged war to secure the government and have sought to act with piety and justice. We have punished those who forgot the kindnesses they had received and broke their oaths. Therefore, I order you to remain at peace with our allies. You must not claim as your own any territory you took through the actions of our enemies. Return it to those from whom you took it.

"Those men received neither their provinces nor their armies from the Senate. They seized them by force and gave them unjustly to those who served their purposes. Now that they have been punished, we want our allies to keep without interference what they previously possessed. You must return every place belonging to Hyrcanus, ethnarch of the Jews, that you took, even if you took it only one day before Gaius Cassius began his unjust war against us and entered our province.

"Do not use force against Hyrcanus or weaken him so that he cannot manage what belongs to him. If you dispute your respective rights, you may present your case when we come to those places. We will protect the rights of our allies and hear all their disputes."

"Marcus Antonius, imperator, sends greetings to the magistrates, senate, and people of Tyre.

"I have sent you my decree. You must have it inscribed on public tablets in both Roman and Greek letters and displayed in the most prominent places, where everyone can read it.

"Marcus Antonius, imperator and one of the triumvirs responsible for public affairs, made this declaration:

"'During his revolt, Gaius Cassius plundered a province that did not belong to him, though it was held by garrisons stationed there as allies of Rome. He also treated the Jewish people, who were friends of the Roman people, as enemies. We have defeated him by force of arms. Now, by our decrees and judgments, we will repair the destruction he caused and restore what was taken from our allies.

"'Any Jewish persons or property that have been sold must be released. The persons must return to the freedom they had before, and the property must go back to its former owners. Anyone who disobeys this decree will be punished. If the offenders are caught, I will see that they receive the penalty they deserve.'"

Antony sent the same orders to the people of Sidon, Antioch, and Aradus. We have included these decrees as evidence for future generations that the Romans took a deep interest in our people.

CHAPTER 13

How Antony Made Herod and Phasaelus Tetrarchs After Their Accusers Failed, and How the Parthians Brought Antigonus into Judea and Captured Hyrcanus and Phasaelus. Herod's Flight, and the Sufferings of Hyrcanus and Phasaelus.

After Antony came to Syria, Cleopatra met him in Cilicia and won his love. At that time, a hundred of the most influential Jews also arrived to accuse Herod and his supporters. They chose the most eloquent men among them to speak. Messala answered on behalf of Herod and Phasaelus, in the presence of Hyrcanus, who was already Herod's father-in-law. When Antony had heard both sides at Daphne, he asked Hyrcanus who governed the people best. Hyrcanus replied that Herod and his friends did. Because of the old friendship he had formed with Herod's father, Antipater, when he served with Gabinius, Antony appointed Herod and Phasaelus tetrarchs and placed the public affairs of the Jews in their hands. He confirmed the appointment in letters. Antony also arrested fifteen of their opponents and meant to put them to death, but Herod secured their pardon.

Yet the accusers did not remain quiet after they returned home. A thousand Jews went to Tyre to meet Antony, who was expected there. Herod and his brother had paid Antony, however, and he ordered the governor of Tyre to punish the Jewish envoys for trying to stir up change and to confirm Herod's rule. Herod hurried out to meet them, with Hyrcanus beside him. The envoys stood on the shore outside the city, and Herod warned them to leave, saying that great harm would come to them if they continued their accusations. They refused to listen. The Romans then attacked them with daggers, killing some and wounding many more. The rest fled home in fear and stayed there in alarm. When the people shouted against Herod, Antony became so angry that he killed the prisoners.

In the second year, Pacorus, son of the Parthian king, and Barzapharnes, a Parthian commander, took control of Syria. Ptolemy, son of Menneus, had died, and his son Lysanias succeeded him. Lysanias made an alliance with Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, with the help of Barzapharnes, who had great influence over him. Antigonus had promised the Parthians a thousand talents and five hundred women if they would remove Hyrcanus from power, make Antigonus ruler, and kill Herod. Although he failed to pay what he had promised, the Parthians still invaded Judea on his behalf and brought him with them.

Pacorus advanced along the coast, while Barzapharnes traveled through the interior. The people of Tyre shut their gates against Pacorus, but the people of Sidon and Ptolemais welcomed him. Pacorus sent a force of cavalry into Judea to examine the country and help Antigonus. He also sent the king's cupbearer, who had the same name as he did. When Jews from the area around Mount Carmel joined Antigonus, ready to march with him into Judea, he hoped they would help him gain control of part of the country. The place where they gathered was called Drymi. Some others met them there, and the group made a secret attack on Jerusalem. As more men joined them, they gathered in great numbers, went to the king's palace, and laid siege to it.

Herod's and Phasaelus's supporters came to the city's defense, and the two sides fought in the marketplace. Herod's young men defeated their opponents and chased them into the Temple. They placed armed men in nearby houses to hold the enemy there, but the defenders received no support. The people rose against them and set fire to the houses, burning the men inside. A little later, Herod took revenge for this attack when he fought the rebels and killed many of them.

Skirmishes continued every day as the enemy waited for the people from the countryside to arrive for Pentecost, one of the Jews' festivals. When the feast came, tens of thousands gathered near the Temple. Some carried weapons, while others came unarmed. The people guarded the Temple and the city, leaving only the palace under Herod's protection. He held it with a small force, while Phasaelus commanded the city wall. Herod led his men out against the enemy camp in the suburbs. He fought bravely and drove tens of thousands into flight. Some ran into the city, some into the Temple, and others into the outer defenses nearby.

Phasaelus also came to help. At Antigonus's request, however, the Parthian commander Pacorus entered the city with a small group of horsemen. He claimed he had come to put an end to the unrest, but in fact he meant to help Antigonus seize power. Phasaelus met him and welcomed him. Pacorus then persuaded Phasaelus to go as an envoy to Barzapharnes. The invitation was a trick. Phasaelus suspected no danger and agreed, but Herod opposed the plan. He distrusted the Parthians' treachery and urged Phasaelus to fight the men who had entered the city instead.

Hyrcanus and Phasaelus both went on the embassy. Pacorus left two hundred horsemen and ten men known as the Freemen with Herod, then escorted the envoys on their way. When they reached Galilee, the local governors came out to meet them in arms. Barzapharnes welcomed Hyrcanus and Phasaelus warmly at first and gave them gifts, though he later plotted against them. Phasaelus and his horsemen were then escorted to the coast.

They soon heard that Antigonus had promised the Parthians a thousand talents and five hundred women in exchange for their help against them. This made them suspect the Parthians' motives. Someone also warned them that the Parthians planned to seize them during the night. The plot would have succeeded if the Parthians had not waited until they captured Herod in Jerusalem, fearing that news of Hyrcanus's and Phasaelus's deaths would reach him and allow him to escape.

The envoys could see that guards were watching them. Some urged Phasaelus to mount a horse and flee at once. Ophellius pressed him most strongly, since Saramalla, the wealthiest Syrian of the time, had told him about the plot and offered ships to carry him away. The sea was nearby. Phasaelus refused to abandon Hyrcanus or put his brother in danger. Instead, he went to Barzapharnes and accused him of plotting unfairly against them. He said that if Barzapharnes wanted money, he would offer more than Antigonus had promised. He also called it a terrible crime to kill men who had come under the protection of an oath and had done him no harm. The Parthian commander swore that Phasaelus's suspicions were false and that he had heard only deceitful claims. Then he left to join Pacorus.

As soon as Barzapharnes was gone, men came and bound Hyrcanus and Phasaelus. Phasaelus rebuked the Parthians bitterly for breaking their oaths. Meanwhile, the cupbearer who had been sent against Herod had orders to lure him outside the city and seize him. Before he was captured, however, Phasaelus had sent messengers to warn him of the Parthians' treachery.

When Herod learned that his brother had been seized, he went to Pacorus and the most powerful Parthians, who commanded the others. Although they knew what had happened, they concealed the truth. They told Herod to go with them outside the walls to meet the men bringing his letters. They claimed that his opponents had not captured the messengers and that the letters would report Phasaelus's success. Herod did not believe them. He had heard from others that his brother was a prisoner, and Hyrcanus's daughter, whom he had married, also urged him to distrust the Parthians. Herod trusted her judgment, for he knew her to be a wise woman, even though others paid little attention to her warnings.

The Parthians discussed what to do next. They did not think it right to attack a man of Herod's standing openly, so they postponed their decision until the next day. Herod, meanwhile, was deeply troubled. He was more inclined to believe the reports about his brother and the Parthians than their reassuring words. He decided to flee that evening rather than wait for the danger to become certain.

Herod gathered the armed men who were with him and set his family on animals for the journey. They included his mother, sister, and future wife Mariamne, daughter of Alexander, son of Aristobulus, as well as Mariamne's mother, Hyrcanus's daughter, and Herod's youngest brother. He took their servants and the rest of his company with him. Without the enemy's knowledge, he set out for Idumea. Anyone who saw him then would have pitied him. The women led their young children away from their homeland and left their friends in prison. They wept and mourned, expecting nothing but further sorrow.

Herod kept his courage despite his desperate position. As they traveled, he urged everyone to stay calm, explaining that grief would make their flight harder, though escape was now their only hope of safety. They tried to endure their trouble as he advised. At one point, however, a wagon overturned and nearly killed his mother. Herod was so distressed by the danger to her, and so afraid that the delay would let the enemy catch them, that he drew his sword and nearly killed himself.

Those with him stopped him. They told him he could not abandon them and leave them to the enemy. A brave man, they said, did not escape his own suffering while leaving his friends to face the same danger. Herod gave up the attempt, partly because he was ashamed by their words and partly because so many of them restrained him. He comforted his mother, cared for her as best he could, and hurried toward the fortress of Masada. Along the way, Parthian forces attacked and pursued him several times, but he defeated them each time.

During his flight, Herod also faced attacks from the Jews. When he had traveled about sixty furlongs from the city, they came against him and fought at close quarters. He routed them as well, fighting like a man fully prepared for war and well supplied, not like a fugitive in distress. Later, on the very spot where he defeated them, he built a fine palace and a city around it, naming the place Herodium.

When Herod reached Thressa in Idumea, his brother Joseph met him. Herod called a council to decide what to do, since a large crowd had followed him in addition to his mercenaries. Masada, where he planned to take refuge, could not hold them all. He therefore sent away most of his followers, more than nine thousand in number. He told them to scatter through Idumea and gave them money to buy food on the road. Herod took only those who traveled light and were closest to him, then went to the fortress with his family and eight hundred followers. The fortress had enough grain, water, and other supplies. After placing them there, he set out for Petra in Arabia.

At daybreak, the Parthians plundered Jerusalem and the palace. They left untouched only Hyrcanus's money, worth three hundred talents. Much of Herod's wealth had already escaped them because he had prudently sent it to Idumea in advance. The goods they seized in the city were not enough, so they plundered the countryside as well and destroyed the city of Marissa.

The king of the Parthians brought Antigonus back into Judea, where he took Hyrcanus and Phasaelus prisoner. Antigonus was furious that the women had escaped, since he had promised them to the Parthians along with the money as payment for their support. He also feared that the people might restore Hyrcanus to power while the Parthians held him captive. To prevent this, Antigonus cut off Hyrcanus's ears. Because he was now mutilated, Hyrcanus could never again serve as high priest. The law required that the high priest have all his limbs intact.

Phasaelus showed great courage when he learned that he was to die. He did not fear death itself, but he thought it shameful and pitiful to die at the hands of his enemy. Since his bonds kept his hands from freeing himself, he struck his head against a large stone and killed himself. He chose this death so that his enemy could not decide how he would die. It is also reported that after Phasaelus badly wounded his head, Antigonus sent physicians to treat him and ordered them to put poison in the wound, which killed him.

Before he died, Phasaelus heard from a woman that his brother Herod had escaped. He faced death with relief, knowing that Herod remained alive and could avenge him and punish his enemies.

CHAPTER 14

How Herod Escaped the King of Arabia, Hurried to Egypt, and Then Went on to Rome; How He Promised Antony a Large Sum of Money and Won the Senate's and Caesar's Support to Become King of the Jews

Herod's severe troubles did not discourage him. Instead, they sharpened his mind and led him to devise bold plans. He went to Malchus, king of Arabia, whom he had once treated with great kindness, hoping to receive help in return when he urgently needed it. Herod asked Malchus for money, either as a loan or as a gift, in return for the many favors he had done him. Since he did not know what had happened to his brother, he was eager to ransom him from his enemies and offered three hundred talents for his release. He also brought along Phasaelus's seven-year-old son, intending to leave the boy as a pledge that he would repay the money.

But Malchus sent messengers to meet him and tell him to leave. The Parthians, they said, had ordered Malchus not to receive Herod. This was only an excuse to avoid repaying the money he owed Herod. The leading Arabians had urged him to refuse help as well, since they wanted to keep the sums they had received from Herod's father, Antipater, and had been entrusted to safeguard. Herod replied that he had not come to trouble them. He had hoped only to speak with them about matters of great importance to him.

Herod decided to leave and took the road to Egypt, acting with great care. He stayed in a temple where many of his followers had been left behind. The next day, he reached Rhinocolura, where he learned what had happened to his brother. Malchus soon regretted his conduct and hurried after Herod, but he was too late. Herod had already traveled far and was making for Pelusium.

When ships anchored there prevented him from sailing to Alexandria, Herod appealed to their captains. Out of respect for him, they helped him reach the city, where Cleopatra kept him with her. She could not persuade him to stay, however. He was determined to hurry to Rome, even though the weather was stormy and he had heard that Italy was in turmoil and disorder.

Herod sailed from there toward Pamphylia, but a violent storm nearly destroyed him. He managed to reach Rhodes, though the ship's cargo was lost. Two of his friends, Sappinas and Ptolemeus, met him there. Although Rhodes had suffered heavy damage in the war against Cassius and Herod himself was short of money, he still did what he could to help restore the city.

He also built a three-decked ship and sailed with his friends to Italy, landing at Brundusium. Once he reached Rome, he first told Antony what had happened in Judea: the Parthians had seized and killed his brother Phasaelus; they held Hyrcanus captive; and they had made Antigonus king. Antigonus had promised them a thousand talents and five hundred Jewish women from leading families. Herod said that he had carried the women away by night and escaped his enemies after enduring many hardships. His own relatives, he added, were in danger of being besieged and captured. He had braved a storm and many other dangers to reach Antony as quickly as possible, since Antony was now his only hope and source of help.

Herod's account moved Antony, who felt sympathy for the sudden change in his fortunes. He knew that people who held great power were often exposed to reversals of fortune. Antony was ready to help Herod, both because he remembered his friendship with Antipater and because Herod offered him money to make him king, just as he had earlier paid him to become tetrarch. Antony also hated Antigonus, whom he considered a troublemaker and an enemy of Rome.

Caesar, too, was eager to raise Herod's status and grant his request. He remembered the hardships he had shared with Antipater, Herod's father, during the Egyptian war, as well as the hospitality and kindness Antipater had shown him. He also wanted to please Antony, who strongly supported Herod.

The Senate was called together. Messala spoke first, followed by Atratinus. They introduced Herod and praised the services his father had rendered to Rome, reminding the senators of Antipater's loyalty. They also accused Antigonus of being Rome's enemy. He had opposed the Romans before, they said, and had now ignored their authority by taking power with help from the Parthians. Their words angered the Senate. Antony then argued that making Herod king would help Rome in its war against the Parthians. The senators agreed and passed a decree in Herod's favor.

Antony's support for Herod was especially clear because he secured for him a kingdom Herod had not expected to receive. Herod had not come to Rome intending to ask for the crown himself. He did not think the Romans would grant it to him, since they usually chose someone from the royal family. Instead, he had planned to request it for his wife's brother, a grandson of Aristobulus on his father's side and of Hyrcanus on his mother's. Herod later arranged to have this young man killed, as we will explain in its proper place.

The Senate's decision came so quickly that Herod left Italy after only seven days. When the meeting ended, Antony and Caesar walked out of the Senate house with Herod between them. The consuls and other officials went before them as they proceeded to offer sacrifices and place the Senate's decree in the Capitol. Antony also held a feast for Herod on the first day of his reign.

Herod received the kingdom in the 184th Olympiad, when Caius Domitius Calvinus was consul for the second time and Caius Asinius Pollio was consul for the first time.

Meanwhile, Antigonus continued to besiege the people at Masada. They had plenty of supplies but lacked water. Because of this, Joseph, Herod's brother, was preparing to flee with two hundred followers and seek refuge among the Arabians. He had heard that Malchus regretted his offenses against Herod. But rain fell during the night and filled their cisterns, so Joseph no longer needed to escape for lack of water.

The defenders took heart. They saw the sudden supply of water as a sign of divine care. Then they made a sortie and fought Antigonus's soldiers, attacking some openly and others by surprise. They killed many of them.

At the same time, Ventidius, the Roman commander, was sent from Syria to drive out the Parthians. He pursued them into Judea, claiming that he had come to help Joseph. In truth, his visit was a scheme to extort money from Antigonus. Ventidius set up camp near Jerusalem and took a large sum from him. Then he withdrew with most of his army, leaving Silo and some soldiers behind. Antigonus cultivated Silo's friendship to keep him from causing trouble, while continuing to hope that the Parthians would return and defend him.

CHAPTER 15

Herod Sails from Italy to Judea, Fights Antigonus, and Other Events in Judea at That Time

By this time, Herod had sailed from Italy to Ptolemais. There he gathered a sizable army of foreign soldiers and men from his own country, then marched through Galilee against Antigonus. Silo and Ventidius also came to help him. Dellius, whom Antony had sent to assist Herod's return, had persuaded them to do so.

Ventidius was busy settling the troubles that the Parthians had stirred up in the cities. Silo was already in Judea, but Antigonus had bribed him. As Herod continued his march, his army grew each day, and nearly all of Galilee joined him.

Herod also needed to reach his family, who were besieged in Masada and whom he was bound to rescue. But Joppa stood in his way. He had to capture the city first, so no stronghold would remain in enemy hands behind him when he marched on Jerusalem. Silo used this as an excuse to withdraw from Jerusalem. When the Jews pursued him, Herod attacked them with a small force, drove them off, and rescued Silo, who was in no position to defend himself. After capturing Joppa, Herod hurried to free his family at Masada.

Some local people joined Herod because of their friendship with his father. Others were drawn by Herod's impressive appearance, while some wanted to repay favors they had received from him and his father. Most, however, hoped to gain something from Herod once he had secured the kingdom.

Herod now had a powerful army. As he advanced, Antigonus set traps and ambushes in the narrow passes and other suitable places, but they did little harm to Herod's forces. Herod rescued his family from Masada and the fortress of Ressa, then continued toward Jerusalem.

Silo's soldiers marched with him, along with many citizens who feared Herod's growing power. When Herod made camp on the west side of the city, the soldiers guarding that section shot arrows and hurled javelins at his men. Some defenders then rushed out to fight Herod's front ranks at close quarters.

Herod ordered his men to proclaim from outside the wall that he had come for the people's good and to protect the city. He said he held no old grudge against even his open enemies and was ready to forgive the wrongs his greatest opponents had done him.

Antigonus answered the proclamation in front of the Romans and Silo. He said they would act unjustly if they gave the kingdom to Herod, who was a private citizen and an Idumean, only partly Jewish. They should follow their custom and give the throne to someone from the royal family. Even if they disliked Antigonus and wanted to remove him because the Parthians had given him the kingdom, he said, many of his relatives could lawfully succeed him. They had done nothing against Rome, and they belonged to the priestly family. It would be shameful to pass them over.

As the two sides argued and traded insults, Antigonus allowed his men on the wall to defend themselves. They used their bows with great skill and drove Herod's soldiers away from the towers.

Herod now realized that Silo had taken bribes. Silo had encouraged many of his soldiers to complain loudly that they had no food. They demanded money to buy provisions and said they should be allowed to move into suitable winter quarters because Antigonus's men had stripped the countryside around Jerusalem. Silo then began preparing to march away.

Herod urged him to stay and appealed to Silo's officers and soldiers not to abandon him. Caesar, Antony, and the Senate had sent them to Judea, Herod said, and he would supply everything they needed. He promised to find plenty of provisions for them.

Herod immediately went into the countryside and left Silo no excuse to depart. He gathered an unexpectedly large supply of food and sent word to his friends near Samaria to bring grain, wine, oil, livestock, and every other kind of provision to Jericho. In this way, he made sure the soldiers would have enough food in the days ahead.

Antigonus learned what Herod was doing and sent men to stop the supply parties. A large force gathered near Jericho, took positions in the hills, and watched for those bringing provisions.

Herod did not wait. He took ten companies of soldiers, five Roman and five Jewish, along with some mercenaries and a small number of cavalry, and marched to Jericho. He found the city deserted, except for five hundred people who had taken refuge on the hilltops with their wives and children. Herod captured them and sent them away. The Roman troops entered the city, plundered it, and found the houses filled with valuable goods.

Herod left a garrison at Jericho, then returned and sent the Roman army to winter quarters in the territories that had joined him: Judea, Galilee, and Samaria. Antigonus had bribed Silo enough to arrange for part of the Roman army to be stationed at Lydda, in order to please Antony. The Romans put aside their weapons and lived well.

Herod did not intend to remain idle. He sent his brother Joseph into Idumea with two thousand armed foot soldiers and four hundred cavalry. Herod himself went to Samaria, where he left his mother and other relatives, who had already escaped from Masada. He then marched into Galilee to capture places held by Antigonus's garrisons.

Herod went on to Sepphoris during a snowfall. Antigonus's garrisons withdrew, leaving behind plenty of provisions. From there, Herod set out to destroy the bandits who lived in caves and caused great harm throughout the country. He sent cavalry and three companies of armed foot soldiers against them. They were close to a village called Arbela. Forty days later, Herod arrived with his entire army.

The enemy charged boldly, and Herod's left wing gave way. But Herod arrived with a force of his own, scattered the men who had been winning, and rallied his fleeing soldiers. He then pressed the attack and pursued the enemy as far as the Jordan River. The fugitives scattered along several routes.

Herod brought all Galilee under his control except for the people in the caves. He gave each soldier 150 drachmas, and paid the officers much more, then sent the troops to winter quarters.

At that time, Silo and his commanders came to Herod because Antigonus had stopped supplying them with food. He had provided only enough for one month. Antigonus had also ordered the people throughout the surrounding country to carry away their provisions and retreat into the mountains. He hoped the Romans would starve.

Herod put his youngest brother, Pheroras, in charge of supplies and ordered him to rebuild Alexandrium. Pheroras quickly provided the soldiers with plenty of food and restored the fortress, which had been abandoned.

Around this time, Antony remained at Athens for a while. Ventidius, who was in Syria, sent for Silo and ordered him to help Herod finish the war in Judea first. Afterward, Silo was to gather their allies for the war they themselves were fighting. Herod, meanwhile, hurried to attack the bandits in the caves. He sent Silo to Ventidius and marched against the bandits himself.

The caves lay among steep, rugged mountains. Precipices surrounded them, and narrow openings led inside. Sharp rocks enclosed the caves, where the bandits hid with their families. Since no one could climb the mountainsides or descend from above, Herod had large iron-bound baskets made. He ordered them lowered from the mountain peaks by chains attached to a machine. Each basket carried armed men with long hooks, which they used to drag out anyone who resisted and throw him down the cliffs.

Lowering the baskets was dangerous because the caves lay so far below. The men also had to carry their own food inside the baskets. When the baskets reached the caves, none of the bandits dared approach them. Some of Herod's soldiers, tired of waiting for the bandits to come out, fastened their armor and held the chains with both hands as they entered the cave openings.

At the entrances, they killed many bandits with their spears. They hooked those who resisted, pulled them close, and hurled them over the cliffs. Then they went into the caves, killed many more, and returned to the baskets. Terror seized the others when they heard the cries of the dying. They saw no way to escape.

Night brought the fighting to a halt. Herod then sent a herald to promise pardon to anyone who surrendered, and many accepted the offer. The attack continued the next day. Herod's men climbed into baskets and fought at the cave entrances. They also sent fire inside, setting the caves ablaze because they were full of flammable material.

In one cave, the soldiers found an old man with his wife and seven children. The children begged their father to let them go out and surrender. Instead, he stood at the entrance and killed each child as he tried to leave, until all were dead. He then killed his wife and threw their bodies over the cliff, before casting himself down after them. He chose death rather than slavery. Before he died, he loudly mocked Herod's humble family background, even though Herod was then king.

Herod saw what the old man was doing. He reached out and offered him every assurance that his life would be spared. In the end, Herod's forces subdued all the caves.

Herod appointed Ptolemy commander of that region, then went to Samaria with six hundred cavalry and three thousand armed foot soldiers, intending to fight Antigonus. Ptolemy's command did not go well. The men who had troubled Galilee attacked him and killed him. Afterward, they fled to the lakes and other nearly inaccessible places, plundering and destroying everything they could reach.

Herod soon returned and punished the rebels. He killed some and besieged others who had taken refuge in strongholds. He killed them and demolished their fortifications. After crushing the revolt, he imposed a fine of one hundred talents on the cities.

Meanwhile, Pacorus had fallen in battle, and the Parthians had been defeated. Ventidius then sent Macheras to help Herod with two legions and a thousand cavalrymen. Antony also urged Herod to act quickly.

At Antigonus's urging, Macheras went to inspect the situation, although Herod had not approved the plan. Antigonus had bribed him. But Antigonus suspected the purpose of Macheras's visit and refused to let him enter the city. Instead, he kept him at a distance and had stones thrown at him, making his intentions plain.

Macheras realized that Herod had given him sound advice and that he had been wrong not to listen. He withdrew to Emmaus. In his anger over what he had suffered, he killed every Jew he met, whether friend or enemy.

Herod was enraged by Macheras's conduct. He went to Samaria and planned to visit Antony, intending to tell him that he did not need helpers who harmed him more than his enemies did. Herod said he could defeat Antigonus on his own.

Macheras followed him and begged him not to go to Antony. If Herod was determined to leave, Macheras asked him to send his brother Joseph with the army to fight Antigonus. Herod finally forgave him after repeated pleas. He left Joseph in command but warned him to avoid taking risks and not to quarrel with Macheras.

Herod himself hurried to join Antony, who was besieging Samosata, a city on the Euphrates. He brought both cavalry and foot soldiers to support him.

When Herod reached Antioch, he found many men eager to go to Antony but afraid to travel because bandits attacked and killed people on the roads. Herod encouraged them and led them on the journey.

Two days' march from Samosata, the bandits had set an ambush for those traveling to Antony. They had placed many cavalrymen in a wooded pass where the road narrowed before opening onto the plain. Their plan was to wait until the travelers had passed into the open country.

The first ranks had already gone through when the bandits attacked. Herod was bringing up the rear. About five hundred men sprang from their hiding places and drove the front of the column into flight. Herod rode forward at once with the soldiers around him and forced the bandits back. His action renewed his men's courage. Those who had fled returned to the fight, and the bandits were killed on every side.

Herod pursued them and recovered all the baggage, including many pack animals and slaves. He then continued on his way. A large band of attackers waited in the woods near the road leading to the plain, but Herod charged them with a strong force, routed them, and killed many. As a result, the road was safe for those who followed. The travelers called Herod their savior and protector.

When Herod came near Samosata, Antony sent out his army in full dress to greet him and honor the help he had given. Antony had heard about the bandits' attacks on Herod in Judea. He was also pleased to see Herod and had learned of the courage he had shown on the journey.

Antony welcomed him warmly, admired his courage, and embraced him. He greeted Herod with great affection and gave him the place of honor, since Antony himself had recently made him king.

Soon afterward, Antiochus surrendered the fortress, bringing the war to an end. Antony left the remaining work to Sosius and ordered him to help Herod. Then Antony went to Egypt. Sosius sent two legions ahead to Judea to support Herod, and followed with the rest of the army.

By this time, Joseph had been killed in Judea. He had ignored the warning Herod gave him before leaving for Antony. After Macheras lent him five regiments, Joseph camped in the mountains and hurried to Jericho to gather the grain there.

The Roman regiments had only recently been raised and were inexperienced in war. Most of their soldiers had come from Syria. The enemy attacked them in difficult terrain, and Joseph was trapped and killed while fighting bravely. His whole army was lost, with six regiments killed.

Antigonus took Joseph's body and cut off his head. Pheroras offered fifty talents to buy it back, but Antigonus refused. After the defeat, the Galileans rebelled against Herod's officers. They seized his supporters and drowned them in the lake, while much of Judea fell into disorder. Macheras fortified Gitta in Samaria.

Messengers brought Herod news of these events. When he reached Daphne, near Antioch, they told him that his brother had been killed. Herod had already expected the news because dreams had warned him of Joseph's death.

He hurried onward. At Mount Lebanon, about eight hundred local men joined him. He also had a Roman legion with him, and together they reached Ptolemais. From there, he led his army through Galilee by night.

The enemy met him in battle, but Herod defeated them and drove them back into the stronghold from which they had come out the day before. He attacked the place the next morning, but a violent storm prevented him from making progress. He withdrew his army to nearby villages. As soon as the second legion sent by Antony arrived, the defenders lost heart and abandoned the stronghold during the night.

Herod then hurried to Jericho, intending to avenge his brother's death. After pitching camp, he held a feast for his chief officers. When the meal was over, he dismissed his guests and went to his own room. There, as people later said, God showed favor toward the king: the upper part of the house collapsed when no one was inside, so no one was killed. Everyone believed Herod had divine protection because he had escaped such a sudden disaster.

The next day, six thousand enemy soldiers came down from the mountain heights to fight the Romans, greatly frightening them. Lightly armed troops approached and pelted Herod's guards with darts and stones. One struck Herod in the side with a dart.

Antigonus also sent a commander named Pappus with a force to Samaria. He wanted to show the enemy how strong he was and that he had enough men to fight on another front. Pappus took up a position against Macheras.

Herod captured five cities. He seized and killed about two thousand people who remained in them, then burned the cities. Afterward, he marched against Pappus, who had camped near a village called Isanas. Many men from Jericho and nearby parts of Judea joined Herod. The enemy attacked his troops with great boldness, but Herod defeated them.

He pursued the fleeing soldiers fiercely to avenge his brother's death. Many armed men had taken refuge inside the houses, and some climbed onto the roofs. Herod's men captured them, pulled down the roofs, and found the lower rooms packed with soldiers. They threw stones down on the men crushed together inside and killed them. No battle in the war had produced a more terrible sight. Outside the walls, countless bodies lay piled on top of one another.

This defeat broke the enemy's courage. A large force had gathered around the village from distant places, but the men now fled. If the deep winter had not held Herod back, his army would have marched straight to Jerusalem while their spirits were high. Antigonus was already looking for a way to flee and abandon the city.

Late that night, Herod ordered his soldiers to eat supper. He went into a room to bathe because he was exhausted. There he came close to death, but escaped, as people later believed, through God's protection.

Herod was naked, with only one servant accompanying him in the inner bathing room. Several enemy soldiers, fully armed, had taken refuge in the building after fleeing in fear. As Herod bathed, the first man appeared with his sword drawn and rushed out through the doors. A second followed, then a third. They were so frightened that none harmed Herod, and each was relieved simply to escape the house unharmed.

The next day, Herod cut off Pappus's head. Pappus had already been killed, and Herod sent the head to Pheroras as punishment for his role in their brother Joseph's death. Pappus had killed Joseph with his own hand.

When winter ended, Herod moved his army toward Jerusalem and camped close to the city. This was the third year since Rome had made him king. He placed his camp near the section of the wall most open to attack, in front of the Temple, and prepared to assault the city as Pompey had done.

Herod surrounded the area with three embankments, built towers, and put a great many men to work. He also cut down the trees around the city. After appointing officers to supervise the construction, he left the army encamped outside Jerusalem and went to Samaria. There he completed the marriage he had arranged earlier and took as his wife the daughter of Alexander, son of Aristobulus.

CHAPTER 16

How Herod, After Marrying Mariamne, Took Jerusalem by Force with Sosius's Help, and How the Hasmonean Government Came to an End

After Herod's wedding, Sosius came through Phoenicia, having sent his army ahead across the inland regions. He followed with a large force of cavalry and infantry. Herod also came from Samaria with a considerable army, in addition to the troops already there. Altogether, the forces numbered about thirty thousand. They gathered at Jerusalem and camped along the city's northern wall. The army consisted of eleven legions of infantry, six thousand cavalrymen, and additional troops from Syria.

There were two commanders. Sosius had been sent by Antony to support Herod, while Herod fought to take the kingdom from Antigonus, whom Rome had declared an enemy. Herod also sought to become king, in keeping with the Senate's decree.

The Jews inside the city walls fought Herod with great courage and determination, for the whole nation had gathered there. They also spread many predictions about the Temple, telling the people what they wanted to hear and claiming that God would rescue them from danger. They had removed supplies from the city so that neither people nor animals could find food. Private raids made the shortage even worse.

When Herod learned of these raids, he placed ambushes in the most suitable locations. He also sent armed troops to bring in provisions from distant places, and soon the army had plenty of supplies. The defenders raised three fortifications with ease, since many workers were constantly at work. It was summer, and neither the weather nor a lack of workers delayed construction. The attackers brought up their siege engines, battered the city walls, and tried every means of breaking in. Yet the people inside showed no fear. They built engines of their own to counter the Roman machines.

The defenders also made sorties and burned the Roman engines, both those still under construction and those already complete. In close combat, they fought as boldly as the Romans, though they lacked their skill. When the attackers destroyed their works, the defenders built new ones. They also dug underground tunnels, met the enemy there, and fought beneath the ground. Relying more on savage courage than sound judgment, they kept fighting to the end, even as a vast army surrounded them and famine deprived them of necessities. This happened during a sabbatical year.

Twenty chosen men were the first to scale the walls. Sosius's centurions followed them. The first wall fell after forty days, and the second after another fifteen. During the fighting, some of the covered walkways around the Temple caught fire. Herod claimed that Antigonus had set them alight, hoping to turn the Jews against him.

After the Romans captured the outer court of the Temple and the lower city, the Jews withdrew to the Temple's inner court and the upper city. They feared the Romans might prevent them from offering the daily sacrifices to God, so they sent envoys to ask permission to bring in animals for sacrifice. Herod granted their request, expecting them to surrender. But when he saw that they had no intention of yielding and were fighting to keep the kingdom for Antigonus, he launched an assault and took the city by storm.

The city filled with slaughter. The Romans had grown enraged by the long siege, while the Jews who supported Herod were determined to leave none of their opponents alive. People were killed in crowded streets and houses, and many were cut down as they fled toward the Temple for shelter. The attackers showed no mercy to children, the elderly, or women. Herod sent word begging them to spare the people, but no one stopped the killing. Like men driven mad, the soldiers attacked people of every age without distinction.

Antigonus then came down from the citadel, disregarding both his former position and his present danger. He fell at Sosius's feet, but Sosius showed no pity for his fallen enemy. Instead, he mocked him and called him "Antigone," as if he were a woman rather than a man. Yet Sosius did not set him free as one might a woman. He bound Antigonus and kept him under close guard.

After defeating his enemies, Herod turned his attention to the foreign troops who had helped him. Crowds of them rushed to see the Temple and its sacred treasures. Herod feared that victory would bring him greater harm than defeat if the soldiers saw things they were forbidden to see. He tried to restrain them with appeals and threats, and at times used force.

He also stopped the troops from plundering the city. Herod repeatedly asked Sosius whether the Romans meant to strip the city of its people and wealth, then leave him king of a wasteland. He said that ruling the whole world would not make up for the slaughter of his people. When Sosius argued that the soldiers deserved the spoils after enduring the siege, Herod answered that he would pay each man from his own wealth. In this way, he saved what remained of the city from destruction. He kept his promise, giving a generous gift to every soldier, a fitting sum to the officers, and a royal gift to Sosius himself. The troops then departed with their pockets full.

Jerusalem fell when Marcus Agrippa and Caninius Gallus were consuls at Rome, in the 185th Olympiad. The city was taken in the third month, on the day of the fast. It seemed that the Jews had suffered another recurring disaster, for Pompey had captured them on the same day, twenty-seven years earlier.

After dedicating a gold crown to God, Sosius left Jerusalem and took the bound Antigonus to Antony. Herod feared that Antony would keep Antigonus in prison and then take him to Rome, where he might appeal his case before the Senate. Antigonus could argue that he belonged to the royal line, while Herod was a private citizen, and that his sons should inherit the kingdom even if he had angered the Romans.

Fearing this outcome, Herod gave Antony a large sum of money and urged him to put Antigonus to death. Once Antigonus was dead, Herod would have nothing more to fear from him. In this way, the Hasmonean government came to an end, 126 years after its founding. The family had been famous and honored because of its noble descent, the dignity of its high priesthood, and the great deeds its ancestors had performed for the Jewish people. Yet the family lost power through internal disputes, and the kingdom passed to Herod, the son of Antipater. Herod came from an ordinary family with no distinguished lineage, one that had been subject to other kings. This is the history of the end of the Hasmonean family.