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The Jewish War – Book 2

BOOK II

Containing the Sixty-Nine-Year Interval

From the Death of Herod Until Nero Sent Vespasian to Subdue the Jews

The Jewish War Book 2 Chapters 1-7

The Jewish War Book 2 Chapters 8-12

The Jewish War Book 2 Chapters 13-15

The Jewish War Book 2 Chapters 16-17

The Jewish War Book 2 Chapters 18-19

The Jewish War Book 2 Chapters 20-22

CHAPTER 1

Archelaus Holds a Funeral Feast for the People in Honor of Herod. A Great Disturbance Breaks Out, and He Sends Soldiers Against the Crowd, Who Kill About Three Thousand People

Archelaus now had to travel to Rome, and this led to fresh disturbances. After mourning his father for seven days, he held a costly funeral feast for the people. This custom brought many Jews into poverty, since they were expected to feed the crowd. Anyone who failed to do so was not considered a holy man.

Archelaus then put on a white robe and went up to the temple. The people greeted him with many cheers. He spoke kindly to them from a raised platform, seated on a golden throne. He thanked them for the zeal they had shown at his father's funeral and for submitting to him as if he were already their king.

Still, he told them that he wouldn't yet take the authority or title of king. Caesar had been given control of the succession through Herod's will, so Archelaus would wait until Caesar confirmed him. He said that when the soldiers at Jericho had tried to place the royal crown on his head, he had refused it. Once the Roman rulers granted him the kingdom, he promised to repay both the soldiers and the people for their loyalty and good will. He also said that he would try to be better in every way than his father had been.

The people were pleased by this speech, and they soon tested his promises by asking him for great favors. Some demanded that he reduce their taxes. Others asked him to remove the duties on goods. Some wanted him to release the prisoners. Archelaus gave answers that satisfied them, since he wanted to win the crowd's favor.

After this, he offered the proper sacrifices and ate with his friends. Toward evening, many people who wanted changes gathered together. The public mourning for Herod had ended, but they began mourning for their own reasons. They grieved for the men Herod had put to death because they had pulled down the golden eagle that had been placed over the temple gate.

Their mourning was not private or small. They cried out loudly throughout the city. Their grief was for men who had died defending the laws of their country and the temple. They demanded that those honored by Herod be punished for what had happened. First of all, they said, the high priest appointed by Herod should be removed. A man with greater devotion and purity should be chosen in his place.

Archelaus was angered by these cries, but he held himself back from punishing the leaders. He was preparing to leave for Rome, and he feared that a war with the people would keep him in Judea. He decided to calm the rebels with persuasion instead of force. He secretly sent his general to them and ordered him to tell them to remain peaceful.

The rebels threw stones at the general as soon as he entered the temple and drove him away before he could speak. They treated the other messengers in the same way. Archelaus sent several men to bring them back to their senses, but each one was met with angry replies. It became clear that the people wouldn't remain quiet if enough of them gathered together.

The Feast of Unleavened Bread was near. The Jews call it Passover, and it was celebrated with a great number of sacrifices. An enormous crowd came from the countryside to worship. Some of them stood in the temple mourning for the rabbis who had been put to death. They supported their rebellion by begging for food.

Archelaus became frightened. Before the unrest could spread through the entire crowd, he secretly sent a tribune with a cohort of soldiers. He ordered them to force the men who had started the disturbance to be quiet.

The crowd became furious and threw stones at the soldiers. Many soldiers were killed, while the wounded tribune fled and barely escaped. Afterward, the people returned to their sacrifices as if they had done nothing wrong.

Archelaus saw that the crowd couldn't be controlled without bloodshed. He sent his entire army against them. Large groups of foot soldiers entered by way of the city, while the cavalry came across the plain. They suddenly attacked the people as they were offering their sacrifices and killed about three thousand of them.

The rest of the crowd fled into the nearby mountains. Archelaus sent heralds after them, ordering everyone to return home. They obeyed, and the festival was abandoned.

CHAPTER 2

Archelaus Goes to Rome With Many of His Relatives, Where Antipater Accuses Him Before Caesar, But Nicolaus Defends Him So Well That He Overcomes His Accusers

Archelaus now went down to the coast with his mother and his friends, Poplas, Ptolemy, and Nicolaus. He left Philip behind to manage the palace and oversee his household affairs. Salome traveled with him, along with her sons, the king's brothers, and his sons-in-law.

They appeared to be going with Archelaus to help secure his succession. In truth, they meant to accuse him of breaking the law by what he had done at the temple.

When they reached Caesarea, Sabinus, the Roman procurator of Syria, met them. He was on his way to Judea to take control of Herod's possessions. Varus, the governor of Syria, had also arrived there, and he stopped Sabinus from going any farther. Archelaus had asked Varus to come at Ptolemy's urgent request.

At that time, Sabinus agreed to Varus's wishes. He didn't enter the citadels or seal the treasuries where Herod's money was stored. Instead, he promised to wait until Caesar had examined the matter. So Sabinus stayed at Caesarea.

But once those who had held him back were gone, Sabinus acted. Varus left for Antioch, and Archelaus sailed to Rome. Sabinus then went to Jerusalem and took possession of the palace. He summoned the commanders of the citadels and the stewards who managed the king's private affairs. He tried to examine the accounts and take control of the citadels.

The commanders had not forgotten Archelaus's orders. They continued to guard the citadels and told Sabinus that their custody belonged to Caesar, not to Archelaus.

Antipas also went to Rome to claim the kingdom. He argued that the earlier testament, which named him king, should be considered valid instead of the later one.

Salome promised to support Antipas, as did many of Archelaus's relatives who had traveled to Rome with him. Archelaus brought his mother and Ptolemy, Nicolaus's brother, who carried great influence because Herod had trusted him and counted him among his most honored friends.

Antipas relied above all on Ireneus, his lawyer. Following Ireneus's advice, he refused to listen to those who urged him to submit to Archelaus, since Archelaus was his older brother and the second testament named him as Herod's successor.

When Archelaus's relatives arrived in Rome, their support shifted to Antipas because they hated Archelaus. At first, they all preferred to live under their own laws without a king and to have a Roman governor rule over them. But if they couldn't obtain that arrangement, they wanted Antipas to become king.

Sabinus supported them as well. He sent letters to Caesar accusing Archelaus and praising Antipas.

Salome and her companions also prepared a list of the charges against Archelaus and placed it before Caesar. Archelaus then wrote down the reasons for his claim. Through Ptolemy, he sent Caesar his father's ring and the royal accounts.

Caesar carefully considered the arguments made by both sides. He also thought about the size of the kingdom, the amount of its revenue, and the large number of children Herod had left behind. He read the letters Varus and Sabinus had sent him about the matter.

After that, Caesar gathered the leading Romans together. Caius, the son of Agrippa, sat in the first place at the meeting. Caesar had adopted Caius and treated him as his own son. When everyone had assembled, Caesar allowed both sides to present their arguments.

Antipater, Salome's son, rose first. He was the strongest speaker among all of Archelaus's enemies. He accused Archelaus in this way:

"Archelaus claims the kingdom with words, but he has already taken royal power through his actions. He now insults Caesar by asking to be heard, since he didn't wait for Caesar's decision about the succession.

"After Herod died, Archelaus secretly arranged for certain people to ask that the crown be placed on his head. He sat on the royal throne, gave answers as a king, changed the army's organization, and granted higher offices to some men. He also gave the people everything they asked of him as their king. He even released prisoners whom his father had confined for serious reasons.

"After doing all this, he now asks only for the appearance of royal authority, although he has already taken its full power for himself. He has made Caesar the ruler of words instead of the ruler of actions.

"Archelaus's grief for his father was also a performance. During the day, he put on a sorrowful face, but at night he drank heavily. This behavior angered the people and helped cause the disturbance that followed.

"His whole conduct shows how serious his crime was when he slaughtered so many people at the temple. They had come to celebrate the festival, yet they were brutally killed in the middle of their sacrifices. So many bodies were piled up in the temple that even a foreign army attacking without warning could hardly have left more dead behind.

"Herod must have foreseen this cruelty. That is why he never gave Archelaus any hope of becoming king until Herod's mind had become weaker than his body. At that point, Herod could no longer think clearly or recognize the character of the son he named as his successor in the second testament.

"Herod made that decision when he had no complaint against the man he had named before. At that earlier time, Herod was healthy, and his mind was free from passion.

"But even if someone believes that Herod's judgment was better when he was sick than when he was well, Archelaus has still lost his right to the kingdom through his own behavior. His actions broke the law and harmed the kingdom.

"What kind of king will this man be if Caesar gives him the government, when he has already killed so many people before he has even received it?"

Antipater spoke at length and brought forward many of Archelaus's relatives as witnesses. They supported every part of his accusation. When he had finished, Nicolaus stood up to defend Archelaus.

Nicolaus argued that the slaughter at the temple could not have been avoided. The people who were killed had become enemies not only of Archelaus's kingdom, but also of Caesar, who had to decide Archelaus's future.

He also showed that Archelaus's accusers had advised him to commit other acts for which they could have charged him. But Nicolaus placed his greatest emphasis on the second testament. He said it should be accepted above all because Herod had appointed Caesar as the one who would confirm the succession.

A man who had enough wisdom to give up his own power and place it in the hands of the ruler of the world could not have been mistaken about the person who would inherit his kingdom. Herod knew whom to choose as the judge of the succession, so he must also have known whom to choose as his successor.

After Nicolaus had finished everything he wanted to say, Archelaus came forward and fell silently at Caesar's knees. Caesar treated him kindly, helped him to his feet, and said that Archelaus truly deserved to succeed his father.

Still, Caesar didn't make a final decision. He dismissed the advisers who had been with him that day and considered the matter by himself. He had to decide whether one of the men named in Herod's testaments should succeed him, or whether the government should be divided among all of Herod's descendants, since so many of them appeared to need support from the kingdom.

CHAPTER 3

The Jews Fight a Great Battle Against Sabinus's Soldiers, and Much Destruction Takes Place in Jerusalem

Before Caesar had decided what should be done about these matters, Malthace, the mother of Archelaus, became sick and died. At the same time, letters arrived from Syria from Varus, reporting that the Jews had revolted. Varus had expected trouble, and after Archelaus sailed away, he went up to Jerusalem to restrain those who were stirring up the people. It was clear that the nation would not remain quiet. He left one of the legions he had brought from Syria in the city, then returned to Antioch.

After Varus had left, Sabinus arrived and gave the Jews a reason to begin new disturbances. He forced the keepers of the fortresses to hand them over to him, and he searched everywhere for the king's money. He trusted not only the soldiers Varus had left behind, but also the large number of servants who belonged to him. He armed these servants and used them to carry out his greed.

The feast celebrated seven weeks later was drawing near. The Jews called it Pentecost, which means the fiftieth day, because it came fifty days after Passover. The people gathered together, but they weren't coming for their usual religious worship. They came because they were angry about the condition of their affairs.

A huge crowd came from Galilee, Idumea, Jericho, and Perea, which lay beyond the Jordan River. The people who belonged to Judea itself were greater in number than the others, and their men were the most eager to act. They divided themselves into three groups and set up camps in three places. One group camped on the north side of the temple, another on the south side near the Hippodrome, and the third near the palace on the west. In this way, they surrounded the Romans on every side and laid siege to them.

Sabinus was terrified by both the size of the crowd and the courage of its men. He sent messengers to Varus again and again, begging him to come quickly to his aid. If Varus delayed, Sabinus warned him, the entire legion would be destroyed.

Sabinus himself climbed to the highest tower of the fortress, which was called Phasaelus. The tower had the same name as Herod's brother, who had been killed by the Parthians. From there, Sabinus signaled the soldiers of the legion to attack the Jews. He was so frightened that he didn't dare come down and join his own men.

The soldiers were persuaded to make the attack. They rushed into the temple and fought a fierce battle with the Jews. At first, the Romans had the advantage because they were trained in war, while many of the Jews had little skill in fighting. Yet the battle changed when a large number of Jews climbed onto the top of the cloisters and threw their weapons down at the Romans.

Many Romans were killed. They couldn't easily strike back at the men attacking them from above, and they also struggled to defend themselves against those who came against them in close combat.

The Romans were suffering from attacks above and below, so they set fire to the cloisters. These buildings were admired for both their great size and their cost. The flames quickly surrounded the Jews who were standing above the Romans, and many of them died in the fire.

Others were killed when the enemy suddenly attacked them. Some threw themselves backward from the walls, while others, seeing no way out, killed themselves with their own swords. Those who managed to escape from the walls and reach the Romans were easily defeated because they were overcome with fear.

After some of the Jews had been killed and the rest had scattered in terror, the soldiers entered the temple treasury, which had been left unguarded. They plundered it and took four hundred talents. Sabinus collected whatever part of that money the soldiers hadn't carried away.

The destruction of the buildings around the temple and the deaths of so many men caused an even larger crowd to gather against the Romans. Many of those who came were experienced fighters. They surrounded the palace and threatened to destroy everyone inside unless the Romans left at once.

The Jews promised that Sabinus would not be harmed if he came out with his legion. Many of the king's supporters also abandoned the Romans and joined the Jews. Still, the strongest group among the king's soldiers, three thousand men from Sebaste, remained with the Romans.

Their commanders, Rufus and Gratus, also stayed with the Romans. Gratus commanded the king's infantry, while Rufus commanded the cavalry. Even without the soldiers under them, both men carried great influence because of their strength and judgment, qualities that often decide the outcome of a war.

The Jews continued the siege and tried to tear down the walls of the fortress. They shouted to Sabinus and his men that they should leave and stop blocking their way. After such a long time, the Jews said, they now had hope of recovering the ancient freedom their forefathers had enjoyed.

Sabinus was eager to escape the danger he faced, but he didn't trust the promises of the Jews. He suspected that their gentle words were only a trap. His hope that Varus would soon send help also kept him from giving up the fortress, so he continued to endure the siege.

CHAPTER 4

Herod's Veteran Soldiers Cause Trouble, Judas Leads Robberies, and Simon and Athronges Claim the Title of King

At this time, serious unrest broke out in many parts of the country. The disorder gave many men the chance to declare themselves kings. In Idumea, about two thousand of Herod's veteran soldiers joined together, took up arms, and fought against the king's supporters. Achiabus, the king's first cousin, opposed them. He avoided meeting them in open battle on the plains and instead fought from some of the strongest fortified places.

In Sepphoris, a city of Galilee, there was a man named Judas. He was the son of Hezekias, the famous robber who had once raided the country before King Herod defeated him. Judas gathered a large group of men, broke into the place where the royal weapons were stored, armed his followers, and attacked those who were eager to seize control of the country.

In Perea, another man named Simon, who had once served the king, also claimed the title of king. He trusted in his tall, handsome appearance, placed a crown on his own head, and gathered a band of robbers around him. With them, he burned the royal palace at Jericho, along with many other costly buildings. He gained a rich supply of goods by taking whatever he could carry away from the burning ruins.

Simon might soon have destroyed all the finest buildings if Gratus, the commander of the king's infantry, had not come against him. Gratus brought the Trachonite archers and the strongest soldiers from Sebaste. Many of Simon's foot soldiers were killed in the battle. As Simon fled through a narrow valley, Gratus caught up with him and struck him across the neck, breaking it.

Some other rebels from Perea also burned down the royal palaces near the Jordan at Betharamphtha.

Around this same time, a shepherd named Athronges also decided to claim the title of king. His great physical strength gave him confidence, and he had a fearless spirit that did not shrink from death. He also had four brothers who were much like him. He placed a band of armed men under each brother and made them his generals and commanders during their raids. Athronges acted as king himself and handled only the most important matters.

After placing a crown on his head, he and his brothers continued raiding the country for a long time. They killed Romans and supporters of the king, and no Jew was safe from them if they thought they could gain anything by killing him. On one occasion, Athronges surrounded a whole troop of Romans at Emmaus. The soldiers were carrying grain and weapons to their legion. Athronges' men shot arrows and threw spears, killing Arius, the Roman centurion, and forty of his strongest soldiers. The rest were in danger of being killed as well, but they escaped when Gratus and the soldiers from Sebaste came to help them.

The brothers continued attacking both their own countrymen and foreigners throughout the war. After some time, three of them were defeated. Archelaus captured the eldest, while Gratus and Ptolemeus captured the next two. The fourth brother surrendered to Archelaus after Archelaus gave him his right hand as a promise of safety. Their final defeat came later, however. For the time being, they filled all Judea with a war of robbery and raids.

CHAPTER 5

Varus Restores Order in Judea and Crucifies About Two Thousand Rebels

When Varus received the letters from Sabinus and the military commanders, he became afraid for the entire legion he had left behind. He hurried to its aid, taking with him the other two legions and their four troops of cavalry. He marched to Ptolemais and ordered the auxiliary forces sent by the kings and city governors to meet him there. As he passed through Berytus, the people of the city gave him fifteen hundred armed men.

When the other auxiliary troops arrived at Ptolemais, Aretas the Arabian also came with a large army of cavalry and infantry. He hated Herod and had brought his forces for that reason. Varus immediately sent part of his army into nearby Galilee, placing Caius, one of his friends, in command. Caius defeated those who came against him, captured the city of Sepphoris, burned it, and sold its inhabitants into slavery.

Varus himself marched to Samaria with his entire army. He left the city unharmed because it had taken no part in the revolt. Instead, he camped near a village called Aras. The village belonged to Ptolemy, so the Arabians plundered it, since they were angry with Herod and his supporters. From there, Varus moved on to Sampho, another fortified village, which the Arabians also robbed.

They took all the money they found that belonged to the public treasury. Fire and bloodshed spread everywhere, and nothing could stop the Arabians from plundering the country. The inhabitants of Emnaus fled, and Varus ordered the town to be burned. He gave this order in anger over the killing of those who had been with Arias.

From there, Varus marched toward Jerusalem. As soon as the Jews saw him, they broke up their camps and fled throughout the countryside. The citizens, however, received Varus and declared that they had taken no part in the revolt. They said they had only been forced to admit the crowds because of the festival. In truth, they claimed, they had been trapped in the city with the Romans and had been besieged along with them, rather than helping the rebels.

Before Varus arrived, Joseph, Archelaus's first cousin, had already met him, along with Gratus and Rufus. Rufus commanded the people of Sebaste as well as the king's army. Soldiers from the Roman legion also came to meet Varus, armed in their usual manner. Sabinus did not dare appear before Varus. He had already left the city and gone toward the coast.

Varus sent part of his army into the countryside against the men who had started the revolt. They captured many of them. Those who seemed less involved in the uprising were taken into custody, but the most guilty were crucified. About two thousand men were put to death in this way.

Varus was also told that ten thousand men were still armed in Idumea. But he saw that the Arabians were not acting like allies. They were fighting according to their own anger and damaging the country in ways he had not ordered, all because of their hatred for Herod. Varus sent them away and then marched with his own legions against the rebels.

Before the battle began, the rebels followed the advice of Achiabus and surrendered to Varus. Varus forgave the people for their offenses, but he sent their commanders to Caesar for judgment. Caesar pardoned the rest, but he ordered several of the king's relatives to be put to death. Some of those men were related to Herod, and they had taken part in a war against a king from their own family.

After Varus settled affairs in Jerusalem, he left the first legion there as a garrison and returned to Antioch.

CHAPTER 6

The Jews Complain Bitterly About Archelaus and Ask to Be Ruled by Roman Governors. After Hearing Them, Caesar Divides Herod's Kingdom Among His Sons as He Chooses.

Another charge was brought against Archelaus in Rome, and he was called upon to answer it. The accusation came from the ambassadors who, before the revolt, had received permission from Varus to plead for the freedom of their country. Fifty ambassadors had come, and more than eight thousand Jews in Rome supported them.

Caesar gathered a council of the leading Romans in the Temple of Apollo, which stood in the palace he had built and decorated at great expense. The Jewish crowd stood with the ambassadors, while Archelaus stood on the other side with his friends. Archelaus's relatives stood with neither side. Their hatred and jealousy kept them from supporting him, but they were also afraid Caesar would see them standing with his accusers.

Archelaus's brother Philip was there as well. Varus had sent him ahead out of kindness, for two reasons. First, he could help Archelaus. Second, if Caesar decided to divide Herod's kingdom among his descendants, Philip might receive a share.

When the accusers were allowed to speak, they began by describing Herod's violations of their laws. They said he hadn't been a king at all, but the most savage of tyrants, as they had learned from everything they had suffered under him.

They said Herod had killed so many people that those who survived their suffering considered the dead fortunate. He hadn't tortured only the bodies of his subjects. He had also destroyed entire cities. He had harmed the cities of his own country while decorating cities that belonged to foreigners. He had spilled Jewish blood to win the favor of people who lived outside the Jewish nation.

Instead of giving the people the happiness and laws they had enjoyed in earlier times, he had filled the nation with poverty and every kind of injustice. In only a few years, they said, the Jews had suffered more from Herod than their ancestors had suffered during all the years since they returned from Babylon under Xerxes.

The nation had been beaten down by so much hardship that it submitted willingly to Herod's successor, even though he brought them into cruel slavery. After Herod died, they had called Archelaus king, despite his being the son of such a great tyrant. They had mourned with him over Herod's death and had wished him success in taking the throne.

But Archelaus, afraid that people might doubt he was truly Herod's son, began his rule by killing three thousand citizens. It was as if he wanted to offer that many bloody sacrifices to God for his government and fill the temple with dead bodies during the festival.

The people who had survived so many disasters now had every reason to think about what they had endured and to resist, like soldiers in battle, prepared to receive blows on their faces rather than continue to be beaten on their backs as they had been before.

For this reason, they begged the Romans to have mercy on the poor remnant of Judea. They asked the Romans not to hand over what remained of their nation to men who would tear it apart with cruelty. Instead, they asked that Judea be joined to Syria and governed by Roman commanders.

If that was done, they said, it would soon become clear that the people who were falsely accused of being rebellious and eager for war could live peacefully under rulers who treated them with some fairness. With this request, the Jews ended their accusation.

Nicolaus then rose to speak. He answered the charges brought against the kings and accused the Jewish nation of being difficult to govern and naturally unwilling to obey its kings. He also condemned the relatives of Archelaus who had abandoned him and joined his accusers.

After hearing both sides, Caesar ended the meeting. A few days later, he gave half of Herod's kingdom to Archelaus and named him ethnarch. He also promised to make him king later if Archelaus proved worthy of the title.

Caesar divided the other half into two tetrarchies and gave them to two of Herod's other sons, Philip and Antipas, the same Antipas who had competed with Archelaus for the throne.

Antipas received Perea and Galilee, with an annual revenue of two hundred talents. Philip received Batanea, Trachonitis, Auranitis, and some territory belonging to the house of Zeno near Jamnia, with a revenue of one hundred talents.

Archelaus received Idumea, all Judea, and Samaria. Caesar reduced Samaria's taxes by one-fourth because the Samaritans hadn't joined the rest of the nation in revolt. Archelaus also received Strato's Tower, Sebaste, Joppa, and Jerusalem.

Caesar removed the Greek cities of Gaza, Gadara, and Hippos from Herod's kingdom and added them to Syria. The territory given to Archelaus brought in four hundred talents each year.

Salome also received everything Herod had left her in his wills. Caesar made her mistress of Jamnia, Ashdod, and Phasaelis. He gave her the royal palace at Ascalon as well. These possessions brought her a revenue of sixty talents, although her household was placed under the authority of Archelaus.

The rest of Herod's children received what had been left to them in his wills. Caesar also gave Herod's two unmarried daughters five hundred thousand silver drachmas and married them to the sons of Pheroras.

After dividing the family inheritance, Caesar distributed among them the thousand talents Herod had left to him. He kept only a few small gifts as a sign of honor to the dead king.

CHAPTER 7

The Story of the False Alexander, and the Banishment of Archelaus and the Death of Glaphyra, Whose Fates Had Already Been Revealed to Them in Dreams

During this time, a certain man appeared who was a Jew by birth but had been raised at Sidon in the household of a Roman freedman. Because his face looked much like that of Alexander, who had been put to death by Herod, he falsely claimed to be that same Alexander.

He came to Rome, hoping no one would discover the truth. A Jew from his own country accompanied him and acted as his adviser. This man knew all the affairs of the royal family and taught him what to say. He instructed him to claim that the men sent to kill him and Aristobulus had felt sorry for them and secretly carried them away. In their place, they had supposedly left bodies that looked like theirs.

The false Alexander first deceived the Jews on Crete and collected a large amount of money from them so he could travel in royal style. From there, he sailed to Melos. The people there became so convinced that he was truly Alexander that he received even more money. He also persuaded those who had entertained him to sail with him to Rome.

He landed at Dicearchia, which is also called Puteoli, where the Jews living there gave him very large gifts. His father's friends received him as if he were a king. The resemblance of his face won him so much trust that even people who had seen Alexander and known him well swore that he was the same man.

Because of this, the entire Jewish community in Rome hurried out to see him. Huge crowds filled the narrow streets through which he was carried. The people of Melos had become so foolish over the matter that they carried him in a sedan chair and paid all the costs of maintaining a royal household for him.

Caesar knew Alexander's face very well, since Herod had once accused him before Caesar. Even before meeting the man, Caesar suspected that the story was false. Still, the good reputation that had spread about him made Caesar want to investigate further. He sent Celadus, a man who had known Alexander well, and ordered him to bring the young man to him.

As soon as Caesar saw him, he noticed that his face was not truly the same. When he also saw that the man's body was much stronger and more heavily built than Alexander's, and that he looked like a slave, Caesar understood that the whole story had been invented.

The man's boldness made Caesar even more angry. When Caesar asked him about Aristobulus, he claimed that Aristobulus was still alive. He said that Aristobulus had been left on Cyprus for his own safety, because traitors would have a harder time capturing both of them if they were kept apart.

Caesar then took the man aside and spoke to him privately.

"I will spare your life," he said, "if you tell me who persuaded you to make up these stories."

The man agreed to reveal the truth. He followed Caesar and pointed out the Jew who had taken advantage of the resemblance between their faces to make money. He said that this man had received more gifts in every city than Alexander himself had ever received while alive.

Caesar laughed at the scheme. He sent the false Alexander to work among the rowers because of his strong body, but he ordered the man who had persuaded him to impersonate Alexander to be put to death. As for the people of Melos, their own foolishness had already punished them, since they had spent so much money on his journey and royal household.

Archelaus now took control of his territory. He treated not only the Jews but also the Samaritans cruelly, because he still resented their old disputes with him. Both groups therefore sent ambassadors to Caesar to accuse him.

In the ninth year of his rule, Archelaus was banished to Vienna, a city in Gaul, and his property was placed in Caesar's treasury.

There was also a report about a dream Archelaus had before Caesar summoned him. He seemed to see nine full and healthy ears of grain, but oxen came and ate them. He called for fortune-tellers and some Chaldeans and asked them what the dream meant. Each man gave his own interpretation.

Simon, who belonged to the sect of the Essenes, said that he believed the ears of grain stood for years, while the oxen stood for a change in circumstances. Oxen changed the land by plowing it, so they showed that the country would undergo a great alteration.

Simon said that Archelaus would rule for as many years as there were ears of grain. After passing through many changes of fortune, he would die.

Only five days after Archelaus heard this interpretation, he was summoned to stand trial.

I also think it should be recorded what happened to Glaphyra, the daughter of Archelaus, king of Cappadocia. She had once been married to Alexander, the brother of the Archelaus whose story we have been telling. This Alexander was the son of King Herod, and Herod had him put to death, as we have already explained.

After Alexander's death, Glaphyra married Juba, the king of Libya. When Juba died, she returned to her father and lived there as a widow. Archelaus, the ethnarch, saw her and fell so much in love with her that he divorced his wife, Mariamne, and married Glaphyra.

After she came to Judea and had lived there for a short time, Glaphyra dreamed that Alexander was standing beside her. He said to her:

"Your marriage to the king of Libya should have been enough for you. But you weren't satisfied with him. You returned to my family and took a third husband. You shameless woman, you chose my own brother as your husband.

"Still, I won't ignore the wrong you have done to me. Soon you will be with me again, whether you want to be or not."

Glaphyra lived only two days after telling others about this dream.

CHAPTER 8

Archelaus's Territory Becomes a Roman Province, Judas of Galilee's Revolt, and the Three Jewish Sects

Archelaus's part of Judea was now made a Roman province. Caesar sent Coponius, a Roman of the equestrian order, to govern it as procurator, giving him authority over life and death.

During his administration, a Galilean named Judas persuaded his countrymen to rebel. He told them they were cowards if they agreed to pay taxes to Rome and accepted mortal men as their rulers after having God as their only Lord. Judas founded a sect of his own, and his teachings were unlike those of the other Jewish leaders.

The Jews have three philosophical sects. The followers of the first are called Pharisees, the followers of the second are called Sadducees, and the members of the third, who follow a stricter way of life, are called Essens.

The Essens are Jews by birth, and they appear to care more for one another than the members of the other sects do. They reject pleasure as evil and consider self-control, along with victory over one's passions, to be a virtue.

They avoid marriage, but they choose children from other families while the children are still young and open to instruction. They treat these children as members of their own community and train them in their customs. They don't completely reject marriage or the continuation of the human race through children. They do, however, guard themselves against the immoral behavior they associate with women, believing that no woman remains faithful to only one man.

The Essens despise wealth and share everything with one another in a way that is hard to believe. No one among them has more than anyone else, because their law requires everyone who joins them to place all personal property in the common treasury.

As a result, no one among them appears poor, and no one lives in excess wealth. Each person's possessions are mixed with those of the others, so the entire group seems to hold one common inheritance.

They consider oil a form of pollution. If someone is anointed with oil without agreeing to it, the oil is wiped from his body. They believe a sweaty body is a good thing, and they usually wear white clothing.

They appoint managers to oversee their common affairs. None of these managers works for personal benefit. Everything they do is for the good of the whole community.

The Essens don't live in one particular city. They are scattered among many cities, and several members of the sect live in each one. When one of them arrives from another place, everything owned by the community is available to him as if it were his own. They enter the homes of people they have never met as though they had known them for years.

For this reason, they carry almost nothing when traveling through distant regions. They do carry weapons, however, to protect themselves from thieves.

In every city where they live, one person is appointed to care for travelers and provide them with clothing and other necessities. Their way of life is simple, like that of children who are afraid of their teachers. They don't replace their clothes or shoes until the old ones are completely worn out.

They don't buy or sell anything among themselves. Each person gives what he has to anyone who needs it, and in return he may receive whatever he needs from that person. Even when no exchange is made, everyone is free to take what he needs from anyone in the community.

The Essens are very devoted to God. Before sunrise, they don't speak about ordinary matters. Instead, they recite prayers handed down by their ancestors, as if they were asking God to bring up the sun.

Afterward, their supervisors send each man to practice the trade he has learned. They work with great care until the fifth hour. Then they gather in one place, put on white veils, and bathe their bodies in cold water.

After this purification, they meet in a private room. No one from another sect is allowed to enter. They then go into the dining room in a purified state, treating it as a holy place, and sit down in silence.

The baker sets a loaf of bread before each man. The cook brings one kind of food and places a single portion before everyone. A priest says a blessing before the meal, and no one is allowed to eat until the blessing has been spoken.

After the meal, the same priest gives thanks again. At the beginning and end of the meal, they praise God as the one who provides their food.

Then they remove their white clothes and return to their work until evening. At that time, they come home for supper and follow the same procedure. If visitors are staying with them, the visitors eat with them.

Their homes are never filled with shouting or disorder. Each person waits for his turn to speak. To outsiders, the silence in the house seems like some fearful mystery. It comes from the strict self-control they practice and from the fixed amount of food and drink assigned to each person, an amount that is enough for everyone.

In almost every matter, the Essens follow the orders of their supervisors. Only two things are left to each person's free choice: helping those in need and showing mercy.

They may give assistance to anyone who deserves it and provide food to people in distress. They cannot give anything to their relatives without permission from the supervisors.

They control their anger and keep their passions in check. They are known for their loyalty and for promoting peace. Their word is more reliable than an oath. They avoid swearing and consider it worse than perjury. They say that anyone who cannot be believed without swearing by God is already condemned.

They also study the writings of ancient authors with great care. They choose from those writings whatever can benefit the soul or the body. They search for roots and medicinal stones that can cure illness.

Anyone who wants to join the Essens isn't admitted at once. First, he must follow their way of life for one year while remaining outside the community. During that time, they give him a small hatchet, the belt mentioned earlier, and a white garment.

If he proves that he can live with the required self-control, he is allowed to come closer to their way of life and take part in their purification rites. Even then, he isn't allowed to live with them.

His character is tested for two more years. If he proves himself worthy, they admit him into the community. Before he can touch the common food, he must take serious oaths.

First, he swears to honor God. He must also promise to treat other people justly and never harm anyone, either by his own choice or at someone else's command. He must hate wicked people and help the righteous.

He must remain faithful to everyone, especially those in authority, because no one receives power without God's permission. If he himself gains authority, he must never abuse it or try to appear greater than those under him through his clothing or any other display.

He must always love the truth and expose those who lie. He must keep his hands free of theft and his soul free of dishonest gain. He must not hide anything from members of his own sect or reveal their teachings to outsiders, even if someone threatens his life.

He also swears to teach their doctrines to no one except in the same way he received them. He must avoid robbery, protect the books belonging to the sect, and preserve the names of the angels, or messengers.

These are the oaths by which the Essens bind new members to their community.

Anyone caught committing a serious sin is expelled from the group. A person who is expelled often dies in a miserable condition.

Because of the oath he took and the customs he followed, he cannot eat the food he finds outside the community. He is forced to eat grass and slowly starve until he dies.

For this reason, the Essens often accept such people back when they are near death. They feel that the suffering endured by the expelled person, up to the edge of death, is enough punishment for his sins.

The Essens are extremely careful and fair in their judgments. They never make a decision with fewer than one hundred judges present. Once that number reaches a decision, the judgment cannot be changed.

After God, they honor the name of their lawgiver, Moses, more than anything else. Anyone who insults Moses is punished with death.

They also believe people should obey their elders and follow the majority. If ten of them are sitting together, no one will speak when nine of the others oppose him.

They avoid spitting in the middle of their group or toward the right side.

They observe the seventh day more strictly than any other Jewish group. They prepare their food the day before so they won't have to light a fire on the Sabbath. They don't move any container from its place, and they don't relieve themselves on that day.

On other days, each man digs a small hole about a foot deep with a paddle. This is the same kind of small hatchet given to new members. He wraps his clothing around himself so he won't expose the Divine rays of light, then relieves himself in the hole. Afterward, he covers the waste with the dirt he removed.

They do this only in isolated places chosen for that purpose. Although relieving the body is natural, they still wash afterward as if the act had made them unclean.

When the period of testing is finished, the members are divided into four classes. The younger members are considered so far below the older ones that if a younger man touches an older man, the older man must wash himself as if he had touched a foreigner.

The Essens live a long time. Many of them reach more than one hundred years of age. Their simple diet and regular way of life seem to help them live so long.

They look down on the troubles of life and endure pain with great courage. When death will bring them honor, they consider it better than continuing to live.

Their war with the Romans showed the strength of their character. They were tortured, twisted, burned, torn apart, and subjected to every kind of instrument of pain. Their enemies wanted to force them either to insult Moses or to eat foods forbidden by their law.

The Essens refused to do either. They wouldn't flatter their torturers or shed a tear. They smiled while suffering and laughed at the men who tortured them. They gave up their lives willingly because they expected to receive them back again.

The Essens teach that the body is temporary and that the material from which it is made doesn't last. The soul, however, is immortal and continues forever.

They believe souls come from the purest air and are drawn into bodies as if into prisons by a natural attraction. When the soul is released from the body, it rejoices as though it had escaped from a long imprisonment and rises upward.

Their teaching resembles the beliefs of the Greeks. The Greeks say that good souls live beyond the ocean, in a place untouched by rainstorms, snow, or excessive heat. A gentle west wind blows there continually from the ocean.

They assign wicked souls to a dark and stormy place filled with endless punishment. The Greeks appear to follow the same belief when they place their brave men, whom they call heroes and demigods, in the Islands of the Blessed. They send the souls of the wicked to the land of the ungodly in Hades, where their stories say people such as Sisyphus, Tantalus, Ixion, and Tityus are punished.

All of this is based on the belief that souls are immortal. From that belief come the calls to live virtuously and avoid evil. Good people are encouraged by the hope of receiving a reward after death. Wicked people are restrained by the fear that, even if they hide their sins during this life, they will suffer everlasting punishment after death.

These are the Essens' teachings about the soul. They strongly attract anyone who has once tasted their philosophy.

Some Essens claim to predict the future. They study the holy books, practice various forms of purification, and spend their time examining the writings of the prophets. They rarely fail in their predictions.

There is another group of Essens who follow the same way of life, customs, and laws as the others, but they disagree with them about marriage.

They believe that refusing to marry removes the most important part of human life, the continuation of the family through children. They also believe that if everyone held this opinion, the human race would eventually disappear.

They test their future wives for three years. If the women experience their natural monthly periods three times, which they consider proof that the women can have children, the men then marry them.

They don't sleep with their wives while the women are pregnant. This shows that they marry for the sake of having children, not for pleasure.

The women bathe while wearing some clothing, just as the men bathe with a cloth wrapped around part of the body. These are the customs of the Essens who allow marriage.

The two other Jewish sects mentioned earlier are the Pharisees and the Sadducees.

The Pharisees are considered the most skilled at explaining the laws in detail. They teach that everything is guided by fate, or providence, and by God. At the same time, they allow that people have the main power to choose right or wrong, although fate works together with every human action.

They believe all souls are immortal. The souls of good people are moved into other bodies, but the souls of wicked people suffer everlasting punishment.

The Sadducees make up the second group. They remove fate from the picture entirely and say that God isn't involved in whether people do good or evil. They believe everyone is free to choose between right and wrong, and that each person can act as he wishes.

They also reject the belief that the soul continues forever. They deny that there are rewards or punishments in Hades.

The Pharisees are friendly toward one another. They support peace among themselves and care about the common good. The Sadducees, however, are harsh even with members of their own group. Their conversations with one another are as rough as if they were speaking to strangers.

These are the Jewish philosophical sects.

CHAPTER 9

The Death of Salome; the Cities Built by Herod and Philip; Pilate Causes Disturbances; Tiberius Imprisons Agrippa, but Caius Frees Him and Makes Him King; Herod Antipas Is Banished

After Archelaus lost his ethnarchy and Judea became a Roman province, Herod's other sons, Philip and Herod Antipas, each took control of his own tetrarchy. When Salome died, she left her toparchy, Jamriga, and her palm-tree plantation at Phasaelis to Julia, the wife of Augustus.

After Augustus died, having ruled for fifty-seven years, six months, and two days, the Roman Empire passed to Tiberius, Julia's son. Herod and Philip continued to govern their tetrarchies. Philip built the city of Caesarea near the springs of the Jordan, in the region of Paneas. He also built the city of Julias in lower Gaulanitis. Herod built the city of Tiberias in Galilee, and another city in Perea, beyond the Jordan, which he also named Julias.

Pilate had been sent to Judea by Tiberius as procurator. He secretly brought the images of Caesar, called standards, into Jerusalem during the night. When the people saw them the next morning, a great disturbance broke out among the Jews. Those who lived nearby were horrified because the images seemed to show that their laws had been violated. Their law didn't allow any kind of image to be brought into the city.

The people of Jerusalem were already angry, and then a great number of people came in from the countryside. They went to Pilate at Caesarea and begged him to remove the standards from Jerusalem and leave their ancient laws untouched. Pilate refused. The Jews then fell facedown on the ground and remained there without moving for five days and five nights.

The next day, Pilate sat on his tribunal in the open marketplace and called the crowd together, claiming that he wanted to answer them. He then signaled his soldiers to surround the Jews with their weapons. The soldiers formed three lines around them.

The Jews were terrified when they saw this. Pilate told them they would be killed unless they accepted Caesar's images, and he ordered the soldiers to draw their swords. At that, the Jews all fell to the ground together, uncovered their necks, and cried out that they were ready to be killed rather than break their law.

Pilate was astonished by their determination. He ordered the standards to be taken out of Jerusalem at once.

After this, Pilate caused another disturbance. He used the sacred treasury, called Corban, to pay for the construction of aqueducts that carried water from a distance of four hundred furlongs. The people were outraged. When Pilate came to Jerusalem, they surrounded his tribunal and began shouting against him.

Pilate had already learned about the disturbance. He mixed his armed soldiers into the crowd, ordering them to disguise themselves as ordinary citizens. They weren't to use their swords. Instead, they were to beat the people who caused the disturbance with their staffs. Pilate then gave the signal from his tribunal.

The Jews were beaten so badly that many died from their wounds. Others were trampled to death by the crowd itself. When the people saw the disaster that had fallen on those who had protested, they became silent.

During this time, Agrippa, the son of Aristobulus, whom his father Herod had killed, went to Tiberius to accuse Herod the tetrarch. Tiberius refused to hear the accusation, so Agrippa remained in Rome. He formed friendships with several important men, especially Caius, the son of Germanicus, who was still a private citizen at that time.

On one occasion, Agrippa gave Caius a feast. Since Agrippa had treated him with great respect in other matters, he finally stretched out his hands and openly wished that Tiberius would die so Caius could soon become emperor of the world.

One of Agrippa's servants reported these words to Tiberius. The emperor became furious and ordered Agrippa to be bound. He treated him harshly in prison for six months. Tiberius then died after ruling for twenty-two years, six months, and three days.

When Caius became Caesar, he released Agrippa and made him king over Philip's tetrarchy, since Philip had died. Once Agrippa received this royal authority, Herod Antipas also began to desire the crown.

Herodias, his wife, encouraged his ambition. She criticized him for being content with so little and told him that he had no royal title only because he refused to sail to Caesar. If Caesar had made Agrippa, a private citizen, a king, then he would surely raise Herod from a tetrarch to the same rank.

Herod was persuaded by her words and went to Caius. But Caius punished him for his ambition and banished him to Spain. Agrippa followed him there so he could accuse him, and Caius gave Herod's tetrarchy to Agrippa as an additional gift.

Herod died in Spain, where his wife had followed him.

CHAPTER 10

Caius Orders His Statue To Be Placed In The Temple, And What Petronius Did About It

Caius Caesar had abused his good fortune so badly that he began to think of himself as a god. He also wanted others to call him one. He had already put many of the highest-ranking men in his own country to death, and now he carried his impiety even against the Jews.

He sent Petronius with an army to Jerusalem to set up his statues in the temple. He ordered Petronius to kill anyone who resisted and to take the rest of the Jewish nation into captivity. But God opposed these commands.

Petronius marched from Antioch into Judea with three legions and many Syrian troops. Some Jews refused to believe the reports of war. Those who did believe them were filled with fear and didn't know how they could defend themselves. Soon the fear spread through everyone, because the Roman army had already reached Ptolemais.

Ptolemais is a coastal city in Galilee, built on a broad plain. Mountains surround it. The mountain to the east belongs to Galilee and lies sixty furlongs away. The mountain to the south belongs to Carmel and is one hundred twenty furlongs from the city. The mountain to the north is the highest of them all. The people of that country call it the Ladder of the Tyrians, and it is one hundred furlongs away.

The small river called Belus flows near the city, about two furlongs away. Near the river is the monument of Memnon. There is also a place nearby that measures no more than one hundred cubits, but it is worth seeing. The place is round and hollow, and it contains sand that can be made into glass.

When ships carry away large amounts of this sand, the winds fill the place again. They bring sand from far away, almost as if they had been sent there for that purpose. The sand they bring is ordinary sand at first, but this place quickly changes it into glass-making sand. What is even more surprising is that any glass-making sand taken out of the area and left elsewhere turns back into ordinary sand. That is the nature of this place.

The Jews gathered in large numbers on the plain near Ptolemais. They brought their wives and children and pleaded with Petronius, first for permission to keep their laws and then for their own lives.

The great number of people and the force of their appeals moved Petronius. He left his army and the statues at Ptolemais, then went into Galilee. He called the people together, along with the leading men, at Tiberias.

There he explained the power of Rome and the threats made by Caesar. He also said their request was unreasonable. Every other nation under Roman rule had placed statues of Caesar in its cities beside the images of its own gods. If the Jews alone refused, they would appear to be rebels and would insult Caesar.

The Jews answered that they were bound by their law and the customs of their ancestors. Their law didn't allow them to make an image of God or even an image of a man and place it in any part of their country, especially not in the temple.

Petronius replied:

"Am I not also bound to obey the law of my own master? If I disobey him and spare you, I deserve to die. The man who sent me, not I, will make war against you. I am under orders just as you are."

The whole crowd then cried out that they were ready to die for their law.

Petronius quieted them and asked, "Then are you prepared to make war against Caesar?"

The Jews answered, "We offer sacrifices twice each day for Caesar and for the Roman people. But if he wants to place his statues among us, he must first destroy the entire Jewish nation. We are ready to let ourselves, our wives, and our children be killed."

Petronius was amazed and felt pity for them. He saw how strongly their religion commanded them and how ready they were to die for it. He dismissed them, but he gained nothing from them.

During the days that followed, Petronius met privately with the leading men and spoke publicly to the crowd. At times he tried to persuade them. At other times he offered advice. But most of all, he threatened them. He reminded them of Rome's power and of Caesar's anger. He also explained that he himself was forced to carry out Caesar's order.

Still, nothing could change their minds. Petronius also saw that the land was in danger of being left without workers. It was the season for planting, and the people had already spent fifty days gathered together instead of working their fields.

At last, Petronius called them together and said it was better for him to take the risk himself.

"With God's help, I may persuade Caesar. Then I will escape the danger along with you, and we will all have reason to rejoice. But if Caesar remains angry, I will be ready to risk my own life for so many people."

After saying this, he dismissed the crowd. They prayed for his success. Petronius then removed the army from Ptolemais and returned to Antioch.

From there he quickly sent Caesar a letter. He told him about his march into Judea and about the nation's pleas. He explained that if Caesar didn't want to lose both the country and its people, he would have to allow the Jews to keep their law and withdraw his earlier order.

Caius answered with great anger. He threatened to have Petronius put to death because he had been so slow to carry out the command.

But the men carrying Caius's letter were caught in a storm and remained at sea for three months. Meanwhile, the men who carried news of Caius's death had a safe and speedy journey.

So Petronius received the letter announcing Caius's death twenty-seven days before he received the letter ordering his own execution.

CHAPTER 11

The Government of Claudius and the Reign of Agrippa, with an Account of the Deaths of Agrippa and Herod and the Children They Left Behind

Caius had ruled for three years and eight months when he was murdered by a conspiracy. Claudius was then carried away by the armies stationed at Rome, who wanted to make him emperor. But the senate, acting on the advice of the consuls, Sentius Saturninus and Pomponius Secundus, ordered the three regiments that remained with them to keep the city under control.

A large number of senators went up to the Capitol and decided to resist Claudius by force because of the cruel treatment they had suffered under Caius. They planned either to restore the government to an aristocracy, as it had been in earlier times, or at least to choose by vote an emperor who was worthy of the position.

At that time, Agrippa was staying in Rome. The senate called him to meet with them, while Claudius sent for him from the camp so he could help him whenever his services were needed. Agrippa saw that Claudius had, in effect, already been made Caesar, so he went to him.

Claudius sent Agrippa as an ambassador to the senate to explain his intentions. He said that the soldiers had carried him away and chosen him without his asking for the position. He also said that it would be wrong to abandon soldiers who had sworn to support him. If he deserted them, his own future would be uncertain, since it was dangerous to accept the empire and then give it up.

He added that he would govern as a good ruler, not as a tyrant. He would be content with the title of emperor, but in all his actions he would allow the senators to advise him. He admitted that he had not always been naturally moderate, but the death of Caius had shown him how carefully a man must act when placed in such a position.

Agrippa delivered this message to the senate. They replied that they had an army and the wisest counsel on their side, so they would not submit to slavery by their own choice.

When Claudius heard their answer, he sent Agrippa to them again with another message. He said that he couldn't bear the thought of betraying the soldiers who had sworn to remain loyal to him. He saw that he might be forced to fight, even though he had no desire to fight against them. If a battle had to take place, he said, it should be fought outside the city. It would be impious to stain the temples of Rome with the blood of Roman citizens because of the senate's foolish decision.

Agrippa heard this message and delivered it to the senators.

While this was happening, one of the soldiers serving with the senate drew his sword and cried out:

"O my fellow soldiers, what are we doing? Why should we kill our brothers and attack our own countrymen who are with Claudius? We can have an emperor whom no one can justly blame, a man with many good reasons to claim the government. Why should we fight against him?"

After saying this, he marched through the senate and persuaded all the soldiers to follow him. The patricians were suddenly terrified when they saw themselves abandoned. Still, since they had no other hope of safety, they hurried after the soldiers and went to Claudius.

Some men who were eager to flatter Claudius and win his favor rushed out to meet them before they reached the walls. They carried their swords drawn, and there was a real danger that the first senators to arrive would be attacked before Claudius learned what the soldiers intended to do.

Agrippa ran ahead and warned Claudius about the danger. He told him that the soldiers were in a frenzy against the patricians. Unless Claudius stopped them, he would lose the very men whose support made it worth ruling, and he would become emperor over an empty city.

When Claudius heard this, he restrained the soldiers and welcomed the senate into the camp. He treated the senators with respect and soon went out with them to offer sacrifices and thanks to God, as was proper when he first became emperor.

Claudius immediately restored Agrippa's entire ancestral kingdom. He also gave him the territories that Augustus had once granted to Herod, along with Trachonitis and Auranitis. In addition, he gave him the kingdom that had belonged to Lysanias.

Claudius announced this gift to the people by decree. He also ordered the magistrates to have the grant engraved on bronze tablets and placed in the Capitol.

To his brother-in-law Herod, who had married his daughter Bernice, Claudius gave the kingdom of Chalcis.

Agrippa became wealthy because he ruled such a large territory. He didn't waste his money on small and unimportant things. Instead, he began building a wall around Jerusalem. If he had finished it, the Romans would have found the city almost impossible to capture by siege.

But Agrippa died at Caesarea before the wall reached its planned height. He had ruled the kingdom for three years, after governing his tetrarchies for another three years.

Agrippa left three daughters by Cypros: Bernice, Mariamne, and Drusilla. He also had a son by the same mother, whose name was Agrippa. The boy was still very young, so Claudius made the country a Roman province. He sent Cuspius Fadus as its governor, and later sent Tiberius Alexander. They made no changes to the ancient laws and kept the people at peace.

After this, Herod, the king of Chalcis, died. He left two sons by Bernice, the daughter of his brother. Their names were Bernicianus and Hyrcanus. He also left Aristobulus, whom he had by his former wife, Mariamne.

Herod had another brother who died as a private citizen. His name was also Aristobulus, and he left behind a daughter named Jotape.

As I have already said, these were the descendants of Aristobulus, the son of Herod. Aristobulus and Alexander were born to Herod by Mariamne, and Herod later had them killed. Alexander's descendants, however, became kings of Armenia.

CHAPTER 12

The Many Tumults Under Cumanus, Which Quadratus Settled; Felix Becomes Procurator of Judea; Agrippa Receives a Larger Kingdom

After the death of Herod, king of Chalcis, Claudius appointed Agrippa, the son of Agrippa, to rule his uncle's kingdom. Cumanus became procurator over the rest of Judea, which was a Roman province, succeeding Alexander in that office. Under Cumanus, trouble began, and the ruin of the Jews drew near.

At the Feast of Unleavened Bread, a large crowd gathered in Jerusalem. A Roman cohort stood above the cloisters of the Temple, as soldiers always did during the festivals. They were armed and kept watch to prevent the crowd from starting an uprising.

One of the soldiers pulled back his garment, crouched down in an offensive manner, and turned his backside toward the Jews. He also spoke words suited to such an insult. The whole crowd became angry and shouted at Cumanus, demanding that he punish the soldier.

The boldest young men, along with those who were naturally most disorderly, began fighting. They picked up stones and threw them at the soldiers. Cumanus feared that the entire crowd would attack him, so he sent for more armed troops.

When the soldiers arrived in large numbers and entered the cloisters, the Jews were thrown into great confusion. They were driven out of the Temple and ran toward the city. The crowd pushed so violently toward the exits that people trampled and crushed one another. Ten thousand Jews were killed.

That festival became a time of mourning for the whole nation, and every family grieved for its own dead.

Another disaster followed, caused by a disturbance involving robbers. On the public road near Beth-boron, a servant of Caesar named Stephen was carrying some property when robbers attacked him and took everything he had.

Cumanus sent soldiers through the nearby villages to seize the inhabitants and bring them to him in chains. He accused them of failing to chase the robbers and capture them.

During this search, one soldier found a sacred book of the Jewish law. He tore it into pieces and threw it into the fire. The Jews were thrown into great confusion, as if their entire country were burning. Their zeal for their religion brought them together, and they marched to Caesarea with one loud cry.

When they reached Cumanus, they begged him not to ignore the man who had insulted God and His law. They demanded that the soldier be punished for what he had done.

Cumanus saw that the crowd wouldn't calm down unless he gave them a satisfying answer. He ordered the soldier to be brought out and led through the people who had demanded his punishment. The soldier was then executed, and the Jews returned to their homes.

After this, a fight broke out between the Galileans and the Samaritans. It happened at a village called Geman, which stood in the great plain of Samaria.

A large number of Jews were traveling to Jerusalem for the Feast of Tabernacles when a Galilean was murdered. Afterward, many people came out of Galilee, ready to fight the Samaritans.

The leading men among the Galileans went to Cumanus and begged him to come into Galilee before the trouble became impossible to stop. They asked him to find and punish the men who had committed the murder, saying that this was the only way to keep the crowd from fighting.

Cumanus placed their request behind the other matters he was handling. He sent them away without giving them the help they wanted.

When news of the murder reached Jerusalem, the people became disorderly and left the festival. Without generals or proper leaders, they marched in great numbers toward Samaria. They refused to obey the magistrates appointed over them.

Instead, they followed Eleazar, the son of Dineus, and Alexander. These men led them in their robbery and rebellion. They attacked the people living near the toparchy of Acrabatene, killing everyone they found, regardless of age. They also burned the villages.

Cumanus took a troop of horsemen called the Sebaste troop from Caesarea and went to help the people who had been attacked. He captured many of Eleazar's followers and killed even more of them.

As for the rest of the crowd that had gone out so eagerly to fight the Samaritans, the rulers of Jerusalem hurried after them. They wore sackcloth and had ashes on their heads. They begged the people to return home.

They warned them that if they tried to take revenge on the Samaritans, they might provoke the Romans to attack Jerusalem. They urged the people to have mercy on their country, the Temple, their children, and their wives. They asked them not to bring complete destruction upon everyone just to avenge the death of one Galilean.

The Jews listened to these appeals and scattered. Even so, many took up robbery, hoping they would escape punishment. Robbery and rebellion soon spread across the whole country.

The leading men among the Samaritans went to Tyre and met Ummidius Quadratus, the governor of Syria. They asked him to punish the men who had destroyed the countryside.

The leading Jews also came to Tyre, along with Jonathan, the son of the high priest Ananus. They argued that the Samaritans had started the trouble because they had murdered the Galilean. They also blamed Cumanus, saying that his refusal to punish the original murderers had caused everything that followed.

Quadratus postponed judgment on both sides. He told them that when he reached the places where the trouble had begun, he would carefully investigate every part of the matter.

He went first to Caesarea, where he crucified all the prisoners Cumanus had captured. From there, he traveled to the city of Lydda. After hearing more about the conflict with the Samaritans, he summoned eighteen Jews who were known to have taken part in the fighting and beheaded them.

He sent two other leading Jews, Jonathan and Ananias the high priests, Artanus the son of Ananias, and several other prominent men to Caesar in Rome. He did the same with the most important men among the Samaritans.

Quadratus also ordered Cumanus, the procurator, and Celer, the tribune, to sail to Rome and report to Caesar on everything that had happened.

After finishing these matters, Quadratus went from Lydda to Jerusalem. He found the people celebrating the Feast of Unleavened Bread without any disturbance, so he returned to Antioch.

When Caesar in Rome heard the claims made by Cumanus and the Samaritans, he held the hearing in the presence of Agrippa. Agrippa strongly defended the Jews, while many important men supported Cumanus.

Caesar condemned the Samaritans and ordered three of their most powerful men to be executed. He banished Cumanus. He also sent Celer, bound, to Jerusalem, where he was handed over to the Jews for punishment. They dragged him around the city and then beheaded him.

After this, Caesar sent Felix, the brother of Pallas, to serve as procurator over Galilee, Samaria, and Perea.

He also removed Agrippa from Chalcis and gave him a larger kingdom. Caesar granted him the tetrarchy that had belonged to Philip, including Batanaea, Trachonitis, and Gaulanitis. He added the kingdom of Lysanias and the province of Abilene, which Varus had governed.

Claudius ruled for thirteen years, eight months, and twenty days. Then he died, leaving Nero as his successor.

Claudius had adopted Nero as his heir after being influenced by his wife Agrippina, even though he had a son of his own, Britannicus, by his former wife Messalina. He also had a daughter named Octavia, whom he had married to Nero, and another daughter by Petina named Antonia.

CHAPTER 13

Nero Gives Four Cities to Agrippa's Kingdom, While Felix Governs the Rest of Judea; Disturbances Caused by the Sicarii, the Magicians, and an Egyptian False Prophet; The Jews and Syrians Quarrel at Cesarea

There were many things Nero did like a madman because of the great wealth and good fortune he possessed. He used that fortune to harm others. He killed his brother, his wife, and his mother, and after that his cruelty spread to the rest of his family. In time, he became so confused that he acted in plays and appeared on the stage. I won't say more about these matters, since many writers have already described them. I will speak instead about the actions of his reign that affected the Jews.

Nero gave the kingdom of Lesser Armenia to Aristobulus, the son of Herod. He also added four cities and their surrounding districts to Agrippa's kingdom: Abila, Julias in Perea, Tarichea, and Tiberias in Galilee. He placed Felix in charge of the rest of Judea as procurator.

Felix captured Eleazar, the chief robber, along with many of his followers. They had ravaged the country for twenty years. Felix sent them to Rome. The number of robbers he crucified, along with those he captured and punished, was so great that no one could count them.

After the country had been cleared of these men, another kind of robber appeared in Jerusalem. They were called Sicarii. They murdered people in broad daylight, right in the middle of the city. They did this most often during the festivals, when they could mix with the crowds. They hid daggers beneath their clothing and used them to stab their enemies.

When a victim fell dead, the murderers would join the crowd that was angry about the killing. In this way, they gained such a reputation among the people that no one could identify them. The first important man they killed was Jonathan the high priest. After his death, people were murdered every day.

The fear of being killed was worse than the murders themselves. Everyone expected death at any moment, just as soldiers do during wartime. People watched those approaching them, even from far away. They no longer trusted their friends when they came near. While everyone was suspicious and trying to protect himself, the Sicarii struck them down. Their plans were carried out quickly, and their methods were difficult to discover.

Another group of wicked men also gathered together. Their actions weren't as openly corrupt as those of the murderers, but their plans caused just as much harm to the city. They deceived the people by claiming to be inspired by God, while their real purpose was to bring political change and overthrow the government.

They persuaded the crowds to act like madmen. Then they led them into the wilderness, claiming that God would show them signs of freedom there. Felix saw this as the beginning of a revolt. He sent armed cavalry and infantry against them, and they killed many of the people who had followed these deceivers.

An Egyptian false prophet caused the Jews even more trouble than the men mentioned before. He was a fraud who also claimed to be a prophet. He gathered about thirty thousand people who believed him. He led them from the wilderness to the mountain called the Mount of Olives.

From there, he planned to force his way into Jerusalem. His plan was to defeat the Roman garrison and the people, then rule over them with the help of his followers, who were supposed to enter the city with him.

Felix stopped him. He went out with Roman soldiers, while the people joined him in the attack. When the battle began, the Egyptian fled with a few of his followers. Most of the others were killed or captured. The rest of the crowd scattered and went back to their own homes, where they hid themselves.

After these disturbances had been stopped, another part of the country became inflamed, just as one part of a diseased body may grow worse after another has been treated. A group of deceivers and robbers came together and urged the Jews to revolt. They told them to fight for freedom and to kill anyone who remained obedient to the Roman government.

They said that anyone who willingly accepted slavery should be forced to give up that choice. The rebels divided into groups and hid throughout the country. They robbed the houses of wealthy men, killed the owners, and burned villages. Judea was soon filled with the results of their madness.

The violence grew worse each day, until the rising became an open war.

Another disturbance began at Cesarea. The Jews who lived among the Syrians there started a quarrel with them. The Jews claimed that the city belonged to them because its founder was a Jew, meaning King Herod.

The Syrians admitted that Herod, a Jew, had built the city. They still argued that it was a Greek city, since anyone who built statues and temples there couldn't have intended it for Jews. The two groups argued over this matter until the dispute finally turned into violence.

The more aggressive men from both sides marched out to fight. The Jewish elders couldn't control their own people, and the Greeks considered it shameful to be defeated by Jews. The Jews had greater wealth and stronger bodies, but the Greeks had the support of the soldiers. Most of the Roman garrison had been recruited from Syria, and because those soldiers were connected to the Syrian side, they were ready to help them.

The city governors tried to keep the peace. Whenever they caught the men who were most eager to fight, from either side, they had them beaten and chained. But the punishment didn't frighten the others or make them stop. Instead, the people became even angrier, and the revolt grew stronger.

Once, Felix came into the marketplace and ordered the Jews, after they had beaten the Syrians, to leave. He threatened them when they refused to obey. Then he sent his soldiers against them, and the soldiers killed many Jews. Afterward, the soldiers seized and plundered the property that belonged to them.

The revolt continued, so Felix chose the most respected men from both sides and sent them as ambassadors to Nero. They were to argue before him about the rights and privileges claimed by each group.

CHAPTER 14

Festus Succeeds Felix, Albinus Succeeds Festus, and Florus Succeeds Albinus. Florus' Cruel Rule Drives the Jews into War

Festus succeeded Felix as procurator and set out to put down the disturbances in the country. He captured most of the robbers and put many of them to death.

Albinus succeeded Festus, but he did not carry out his office in the same way. There was hardly any kind of wickedness that he did not take part in. As a public official, he stole and seized the property of individuals. He also placed heavy taxes on the entire nation. Yet his worst practice was allowing the relatives of prisoners to buy their freedom.

Some of these prisoners had been arrested for robbery by the councils of their cities or by earlier procurators. Albinus set them free when their relatives paid him money. The only criminals left in prison were those who had nothing to give him.

At that time, the activities of the rebels in Jerusalem became more dangerous than ever. The leading men among them paid Albinus for permission to continue their violent actions. People who enjoyed disorder joined themselves to those who had dealings with Albinus. Each of these wicked men gathered his own band of robbers around him. Albinus himself acted like the chief of all robbers, or like a tyrant among them. He used his authority to rob peaceful people and protect those who served his purposes.

The result was that people who lost their property had to remain silent, even though they had every reason to be angry. Those who managed to keep what they owned had to flatter the man who deserved punishment, because they feared that the same thing would happen to them. No one dared speak openly. Tyranny became accepted everywhere, and during this period the seeds were planted that later brought Jerusalem to ruin.

Albinus was a wicked man, but Gessius Florus, who succeeded him, made Albinus look like an excellent governor by comparison. Albinus carried out most of his crimes in secret and tried to hide them. Florus committed his injustices openly, as if he had been sent to punish a condemned nation.

He left no kind of robbery or abuse untouched. When people were already suffering, he treated them with the greatest cruelty. In matters that called for shame, he showed no shame at all. No one was better at hiding the truth, and no one could invent more deceitful ways to get what he wanted.

Florus thought stealing from one person at a time was too small a crime. He plundered entire cities and ruined whole communities. He almost publicly announced throughout the country that people were free to become robbers, as long as he received a share of whatever they stole.

His greed caused entire districts to be destroyed. Many people abandoned their homes and fled into foreign provinces.

While Cestius Gallus was governor of Syria, no one dared send an official delegation to him to accuse Florus. But when Cestius came to Jerusalem as the Feast of Unleavened Bread approached, the people gathered around him. Their number was no fewer than three million.

They begged him to feel pity for their suffering nation and cried out against Florus, calling him the ruin of their country. Florus was standing beside Cestius, and he laughed at what they said.

Cestius quieted the crowd and promised that he would see to it that Florus treated them more gently in the future. He then returned to Antioch. Florus escorted him as far as Caesarea, but all the while he was planning how to provoke the nation into war.

Florus believed that war was the only way to hide his crimes. If peace continued, he expected the Jews to accuse him before Caesar. But if he could make them rebel, their greater suffering would distract everyone from the lesser crimes he had committed. For that reason, he added to their troubles every day, hoping to drive them into rebellion.

At this time, the Greeks in Caesarea had defeated the Jews in a legal dispute. They had obtained from Nero control of the city, along with the official judgment in their favor. The war began in the twelfth year of Nero's reign and the seventeenth year of King Agrippa's reign, during the month of Artemisius, called Jyar by the Jews.

The cause of the war was small compared with the terrible suffering that followed. The Jews who lived in Caesarea had a synagogue near a certain piece of land. The owner was a Greek citizen of Caesarea. The Jews had repeatedly tried to buy the property and had offered many times more than it was worth.

The owner ignored their offers. Instead, he built other structures on the land to insult them. He turned the buildings into workshops and left the Jews with only a narrow, difficult passage leading to their synagogue.

The more aggressive young Jews hurried to the workmen and ordered them to stop building. Florus wouldn't allow them to use force. The leading Jewish men, along with John the tax collector, were at a loss over what to do. They offered Florus eight talents to stop the construction.

Florus cared about nothing but money. He promised to do everything they asked, then left Caesarea and went to Sebaste. By doing this, he abandoned the conflict and allowed the quarrel to grow, as if he had sold the Jews permission to fight it out among themselves.

The next day was the seventh day of the week, and the Jews were gathering in large numbers at their synagogue. A certain man from Caesarea, who was known for stirring up trouble, took an earthen pot and placed it upside down at the entrance of the synagogue. He then sacrificed birds beside it.

This enraged the Jews because their laws had been insulted and their holy place had been polluted. The calmer and more reasonable Jews thought they should appeal to the authorities again. But the rebels and the hot-headed young men were eager to fight.

The troublemakers among the Gentiles in Caesarea were also prepared for violence. They had arranged beforehand for the man to make the sacrifice, so they were ready to support him. Soon the dispute turned into a fight.

Jucundus, the commander of the cavalry, had been ordered to prevent the conflict. He came to the scene, removed the earthen vessel, and tried to stop the fighting. But the people of Caesarea were too violent for him to control.

The Jews then took their copies of the law and withdrew to Narbata, a place that belonged to them about sixty furlongs from Caesarea. John and twelve leading men went to Florus at Sebaste. They gave him a full account of what had happened and begged him to help them. With the greatest respect, they also reminded him of the eight talents they had paid him.

Florus responded by having them arrested and imprisoned. He accused them of removing the books of the law from Caesarea.

The people of Jerusalem were deeply angered by what had happened, but they managed to hold back their anger. Florus acted as if he had been paid to start a war. He sent men to take seventeen talents from the sacred treasury and claimed that Caesar needed the money.

The people were immediately thrown into confusion. They ran together to the temple, shouting loudly. They called Caesar by name and begged him to rescue them from Florus' tyranny.

Some of the rebels mocked Florus and spoke against him with the strongest insults. They carried a basket around and begged people to give them small coins for Florus, as if he were poor and had no possessions.

This did not shame Florus or lessen his greed. It only made him angrier and more determined to take even more money. He should have gone to Caesarea to put out the fire of conflict that had begun there. He had accepted the eight talents for doing exactly that.

Instead, he quickly marched toward Jerusalem with a force of cavalry and infantry. He intended to get his way by using Roman weapons and to bring the city under control through fear and threats.

The people wanted to make Florus ashamed of what he was doing. They went out to meet his soldiers with cheers and arranged themselves in a respectful manner to receive him.

Florus sent a centurion named Capito ahead with fifty soldiers. Capito told the people to go back and stop pretending that they wished to welcome Florus. They had insulted him openly, Capito said, so they should show their courage by mocking him to his face. If they truly loved freedom, they should prove it with their weapons and not only with their words.

The crowd was shocked by this message. When Capito's horsemen entered the middle of the people, the crowd scattered before it could greet Florus or show him the respect it had intended to show.

The people returned to their homes and spent the night in fear, confused and ashamed.

Florus took up residence in the palace. The next day, he had his judgment seat set up in front of it and sat there. The high priests, the leading men, and the most respected people in the city all came before him.

Florus ordered them to hand over the people who had insulted him. He told them that they would suffer the same punishment if they failed to produce those men.

The leaders explained that the people were peaceful and begged him to forgive those who had spoken wrongly. They said it was not surprising that, in such a large crowd, a few people might act more boldly than they should. Because of their young age, they might also have acted foolishly.

They said it was impossible to identify the offenders among the rest of the crowd. Everyone regretted what had happened, and those who had taken part in it were denying their actions because they feared the punishment that would follow.

The leaders urged Florus to protect the peace of the nation and make decisions that would keep the city loyal to Rome. It was better, they said, to forgive a few guilty people for the sake of so many innocent citizens than to throw a large and respectable community into disorder because of a few wicked men.

Their words made Florus even angrier. He shouted to the soldiers to plunder the place called the Upper Market and kill anyone they found there.

The soldiers understood their command in a way that suited their desire for profit. They didn't limit themselves to robbing the marketplace. They forced their way into houses and killed the people inside. Citizens fled through the narrow streets, but the soldiers killed everyone they caught. They used every method of robbery they could think of.

They also seized many peaceful citizens and brought them before Florus. He had them beaten and then crucified.

About three thousand six hundred people were killed that day, including their wives and children. The soldiers didn't spare even the infants.

This disaster was made worse by a new act of Roman cruelty. Florus dared to do what no one before him had done. He ordered men of the equestrian order to be whipped and crucified in front of his judgment seat. They were Jews by birth, but they also held Roman rank.

CHAPTER 15

Bernice Pleads with Florus to Spare the Jews, but He Refuses; After the Rebellion Is Calmed, Florus Starts It Again

Around this time, King Agrippa was traveling to Alexandria to congratulate Alexander, who had received control of Egypt from Nero. His sister Bernice had come to Jerusalem, where she saw the cruel actions of the soldiers. She was deeply troubled by what was happening, so she repeatedly sent her horse masters and guards to Florus, asking him to stop the killings.

Florus refused to listen. He cared neither about the number of people who had already been killed nor about Bernice's rank. He cared only about the profit he could gain by plundering the city. The soldiers had become so violent that they even turned against the queen herself. They tortured and killed people in front of her, and they would have killed Bernice too if she hadn't escaped to the palace. She stayed there all night with her guards because she feared the soldiers would attack her.

Bernice was living in Jerusalem at the time to fulfill a vow she had made to God. People who had suffered from illness or some other trouble often made such vows. For thirty days before offering their sacrifices, they were required to avoid wine and shave their heads. Bernice was following these customs. She stood barefoot before Florus's court and begged him to spare the Jews, but he showed her no respect. She barely escaped with her own life.

This happened on the sixteenth day of the month Artemisius, which the Jews call Jyar. The next day, the people, still overwhelmed with grief, gathered in the Upper Market and mourned loudly for those who had been killed. Most of their cries were directed against Florus.

The powerful men of the city and the high priests became frightened. They tore their clothes, fell before the people, and begged them to stop. They warned that if the crowd continued, Florus might take even harsher action against them, adding to the suffering they had already endured.

The people immediately agreed to calm themselves, partly because they respected those who asked them to stop and partly because they hoped Florus wouldn't harm them again.

Florus was upset that the unrest had ended. He wanted to start it again, so he summoned the high priests and other leading men. He told them that the only way to prove the people wouldn't cause further trouble was to go out and welcome the soldiers coming up from Caesarea. Two cohorts were on their way.

While the leaders were urging the people to meet the soldiers, Florus secretly sent instructions to the centurions. He ordered them to tell their troops not to return the Jews' greetings. If the Jews said anything against him, the soldiers were to attack them.

The high priests gathered the people in the temple and urged them to go meet the Romans. They told the crowd to greet the soldiers politely before their situation became impossible to repair.

The rebellious group refused to follow this advice. But the memory of those who had already been killed caused many people to support the men who were calling for action.

At that point, every priest and temple servant brought out the sacred vessels and the beautiful garments used in worship. The harp players and singers also came out with their instruments. They fell before the people and begged them to protect the holy objects instead of provoking the Romans to carry away the temple treasures.

The high priests themselves came out with large amounts of dust sprinkled on their heads. Their clothing was torn, leaving their chests exposed. They called the leading men by name and pleaded with the entire crowd not to hand their country over to those who wanted to destroy it because of such a small offense.

They asked, "What will the soldiers gain from receiving a greeting from the Jews? And how will your situation improve if you don't go out to meet them? If you greet them properly, Florus will have no excuse to start a war. You can protect your country and avoid further suffering. It would also show a lack of self-control if such a large people allowed a few rebellious men to dictate their actions. You should make those men behave sensibly."

These arguments affected both the crowd and the rebels. Some were held back by threats, while others obeyed because of the respect they had for the priests. The leaders then brought the people out to meet the soldiers.

The Jews approached peacefully and calmly. When they reached the soldiers, they greeted them, but the soldiers gave no answer. The rebellious men then began shouting against Florus. This was the signal the soldiers had been waiting for.

The soldiers immediately surrounded the crowd and struck the people with clubs. As the Jews tried to escape, the cavalry rode over them. Many were killed by the Roman weapons, but even more died when people crushed one another in the rush to get away.

A terrible crush formed near the gates. Everyone tried to get ahead of everyone else, which slowed the escape and caused many people to fall. Those who went down were suffocated or trampled beneath the crowd. Their relatives couldn't even identify many of the bodies to prepare them for burial.

The soldiers continued beating everyone they caught, showing no mercy. They drove the crowd through the area called Bezetha as they tried to force their way into the city and seize the temple and the Antonia fortress.

Florus also wanted control of those places. He brought the soldiers who were with him out of the king's palace and ordered them to advance toward the citadel, Antonia. But his plan failed. The people turned against him and stopped the attack.

The Jews stood on the roofs of their houses and threw weapons down at the Romans. The soldiers were badly wounded because the attacks came from above. They also couldn't move through the narrow streets, which were blocked by the crowd. Because of this, they withdrew to the camp near the palace.

The rebels feared that Florus would return and capture the temple through Antonia. They immediately climbed onto the temple cloisters connected to the fortress and tore them down.

This ended Florus's desire to take the temple treasures. He had wanted to reach Antonia so he could seize the wealth kept in the temple, but once the cloisters had been destroyed, he gave up the attack.

Florus then summoned the high priests and the Sanhedrin. He told them that he was leaving the city, but that he would leave behind as many soldiers as they wanted.

They promised not to cause any further trouble if he left one cohort behind. They refused to accept the same cohort that had fought against the Jews because the people hated those soldiers for what they had done.

Florus agreed to their request. He replaced the cohort, then returned to Caesarea with the rest of his forces.

CHAPTER 16

Cestius Sends the Tribune Neopolitanus to Learn the Condition of Jewish Affairs, and Agrippa Speaks to the Jews to Turn Them Away from War Against Rome

Florus found another way to push the Jews into war. He sent word to Cestius, falsely accusing the Jews of rebelling against Roman rule. He blamed them for the earlier conflict and claimed that they had started the disturbance, even though they had only suffered from it.

The officials in Jerusalem did not remain silent. They wrote to Cestius themselves, and Bernice also sent him a letter, explaining the unlawful acts Florus had committed against the city. After Cestius read both sides of the matter, he consulted his commanders.

Some advised him to march into Judea with his army. If the Jews had truly revolted, he could punish them. If they remained peaceful, he could still place Roman affairs there on firmer ground. Cestius, however, thought it wiser to send one of his trusted friends ahead of him. That man could examine the situation and give a truthful report about the Jews' intentions.

So Cestius sent one of his tribunes, named Neopolitanus. Neopolitanus met King Agrippa at Jamnia while Agrippa was returning from Alexandria. He told Agrippa who had sent him and explained the reason for his visit.

The high priests, the leading men among the Jews, and the members of the Sanhedrin came to welcome the king. After they had shown him proper respect, they began to speak about their own troubles. They described the cruel treatment Florus had inflicted on the city.

Agrippa was greatly angered by Florus's cruelty. Still, he presented his anger in a clever way. He directed his words against the very Jews he pitied, hoping to bring down their confidence and persuade them that they had not been treated as unjustly as they claimed. He wanted to stop them from taking revenge.

The leading men understood that the king's harsh words were meant for their benefit. They were wealthier and more concerned with peace because they had property to lose. The common people, however, came out from Jerusalem to meet Agrippa and Neopolitanus. They traveled about sixty furlongs from the city.

The wives of the men who had been killed came first, crying and mourning. When the people heard them, they began to weep as well. They begged Agrippa to help them. They also called out to Neopolitanus, telling him about the many wrongs they had suffered under Florus.

When Agrippa and Neopolitanus entered the city, the people showed them the empty marketplace and the houses that had been robbed. They then persuaded Neopolitanus, through Agrippa, to walk around the city with only one servant. They wanted him to see for himself that the Jews were obedient to the rest of the Roman officials and were angry only with Florus because of his extreme cruelty.

Neopolitanus walked around the city and saw that the people were calm. Afterward, he went up to the temple and called the crowd together. He praised them for remaining loyal to Rome and urged them to keep the peace. He also took part in the religious worship at the temple as far as he was permitted to do so. Then he returned to Cestius.

The Jewish crowd then went to Agrippa and the high priests. They asked permission to send ambassadors to Nero to accuse Florus. They said that if they remained silent, people might think they had caused the massacres and were planning a revolt.

They argued that if they didn't show who had started the trouble, everyone would believe that the Jews had begun the war. It was also clear that the people would not remain quiet if anyone tried to stop them from sending the embassy.

Agrippa believed it would be dangerous for the Jews to send men to accuse Florus before Nero. Still, he knew he couldn't ignore a crowd that was already prepared for war. So he called the people together in a large gallery.

He placed his sister Bernice in the house of the Hasmoneans, where the people could see her. The house stood above the gallery, near the passage leading to the upper city, at the place where the bridge connected the temple with the gallery. Agrippa then spoke to the people:

"If I had seen that all of you were determined to fight the Romans, and that the better and more honest part of the nation wanted no peace, I wouldn't have come out to speak with you. I wouldn't have dared to offer advice. When people have already agreed to do the opposite of what they should do, every speech urging them to act rightly is useless.

"But I know that some of you want war because you are young and have never experienced the suffering that war brings. Some want it because they foolishly expect to recover their freedom. Others support it because they hope to profit from the confusion. They want to seize the property of people too weak to resist them.

"For these reasons, I called you together. I want to tell you what I believe will help you. Perhaps the young will gain wisdom and change their minds. Perhaps the better people among you will not suffer because of the foolish actions of others.

"Don't become angry with me if you dislike what I say. Those who are determined to revolt can keep the same opinion after my speech is over. But even those who are willing to listen won't gain anything from my words unless everyone remains quiet while I speak.

"I know that many of you make loud complaints about the injuries caused by your governors. I also know that you speak proudly about the benefits of freedom. Before we decide who must fight and whom we must fight, we need to separate these arguments, because you are joining things together that don't belong together.

"If your goal is to take revenge on the men who have harmed you, why do you call this war a fight to recover your freedom? But if you believe all slavery is unbearable, what difference does it make whether a particular governor treated you kindly? Even if your governors treated you with fairness, it would still be shameful, according to your argument, to live under foreign rule.

"Look at each reason you have given for war, and you will see how little cause you have for taking up arms.

"Your first complaint is against your governors. In that case, you should submit to those in authority and avoid provoking them. When you loudly accuse men over small offenses, you turn them into your enemies. They may stop harming you in private or with some restraint, and begin destroying your property openly.

"Nothing weakens the force of an injury more than patience. When those who are mistreated remain calm, the people who mistreat them may stop causing them pain. But even if we assume that the Roman officials are unjust and impossible to correct, they aren't all Romans. Caesar himself, against whom you are preparing to fight, hasn't injured you.

"No governor was sent here by Caesar's command to commit every evil act. The rulers in the western parts of the empire cannot see what is happening in the east. Many times, they can't even hear about it. So it is foolish to fight a great many people because of one man. It is even more foolish to fight a mighty nation over a small cause, especially when that nation may not know what you are complaining about.

"These wrongs can also be corrected without war. The same governor will not remain here forever. His successors may come with milder and better intentions. War, once it begins, is not easily ended. It cannot be carried on without bringing disaster with it.

"As for your wish to recover your freedom, you have chosen a very late time to pursue it. You should have fought long ago, before you lost your freedom. It was reasonable to resist when Roman rule was first being imposed. The first experience of slavery is hard to bear, and it would have been right to struggle so that you would never become subject to it.

"But a slave who has already been conquered and then runs away is not really acting like a lover of freedom. He is acting like a rebellious slave. The proper time to do everything possible was when Pompey first came into this country. You should never have allowed the Romans to enter Jerusalem.

"Yet our ancestors and their kings were stronger than we are. They had more money, stronger bodies, and braver spirits. Even they couldn't withstand a small Roman army. You have now been accustomed to obeying Rome for generation after generation. You are weaker in every way than the people who first submitted. Do you really intend to fight the entire Roman Empire?

"Think about the Athenians. They once burned their own city to preserve the freedom of Greece. They pursued Xerxes, the proud king who claimed that he could sail across the land and march across the sea. His army was so large that it seemed too great for Europe to contain. Yet the Athenians drove him away like a fugitive in a single ship and defeated so much of his power at Salamis.

"Even those Athenians are now servants of Rome. Orders sent from Italy become laws in Athens, the leading city of Greece.

"Consider the Spartans as well. They won great victories at Thermopylae and Plataea. They had King Agesilaus and explored every part of Asia. They too are content to accept Roman rule.

"The Macedonians still remember the greatness of Philip and Alexander. Alexander promised them rule over the whole world. Yet they have accepted their changed condition and now obey the people whom fortune has placed above them.

"More than ten thousand other nations have a better reason than you do to demand freedom, but they all submit. You alone think it disgraceful to serve the people whom nearly the whole world obeys.

"What army are you counting on? What weapons do you have? Where is your fleet, the fleet that could seize control of Roman waters? Where are the treasures needed to support such a war?

"Do you think you will be fighting only the Egyptians and Arabians? Will you refuse to consider the size of the Roman Empire? Will you compare it with your own weakness? Your army has often been defeated by neighboring peoples, while Roman power has proved victorious across the whole inhabited earth.

"The Romans are still searching for lands beyond those they have conquered. The Euphrates isn't a sufficient boundary for them in the east, nor is the Danube enough to hold them back in the north. In the south, they have explored Libya as far as the uninhabited regions. In the west, their rule reaches to Gades. They have even searched for another inhabited world beyond the ocean and carried their weapons to British islands that were once unknown.

"What do you have that they don't? Are you richer than the Gauls? Stronger than the Germans? Wiser than the Greeks? More numerous than all the other peoples of the earth? What gives you the confidence to oppose Rome?

"Perhaps you will say that slavery is hard to endure. It is hard, but it is even harder for the Greeks, who are considered the noblest people under the sun. They live in a large and prosperous country, yet they submit to the Roman fasces.

"The Macedonians have an even stronger reason to demand freedom than you do, but they also obey Rome. What about the five hundred cities of Asia? Don't they submit to one governor and to Roman authority?

"Why should I speak about the Heniochi, the Colchi, the Tauri, the people who live around the Bosporus, and the nations near Pontus and the Sea of Azov? Once they had no ruler of their own. Now three thousand armed Roman soldiers control them, and forty long ships keep their seas peaceful. Those waters were once too dangerous for ships to sail.

"How much stronger a claim to freedom could Bithynia, Cappadocia, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Cilicia make? Yet they pay tribute to Rome without requiring a large Roman army.

"Look at the Thracians. Their country takes five days to cross in width and seven days in length. It is rougher and easier to defend than your land. Its severe cold alone can stop armies from invading. Still, they submit to only two thousand Roman soldiers.

"The Illyrians live in the neighboring country, extending toward Dalmatia and the Danube. Barely two Roman legions govern them and keep back the Dacian raids.

"The Dalmatians often rebelled to regain their freedom. In earlier times, they were never fully defeated, because they always gathered their forces and rose again. Now they live quietly under one Roman legion.

"If great advantages were enough to make a people revolt, the Gauls would have the best reason of all. Nature protects them on every side. The Alps guard them in the east, the Rhine in the north, the Pyrenees in the south, and the ocean in the west.

"Those Gauls have every natural defense against invasion. They also have three hundred and five nations among them. Their land contains the sources of many good things, and its wealth flows out to much of the world. Yet they pay tribute to Rome and receive their prosperity under Roman rule.

"They don't submit because they are weak-minded or descended from an unworthy people. They fought for eighty years to preserve their freedom. They submit because they respect Roman power and because Roman fortune has proved stronger than their weapons.

"Twelve hundred Roman soldiers keep these Gauls under control, hardly more soldiers than the Gauls have cities. The gold taken from the mines of Spain couldn't support a war for their freedom. Their great distance from Rome, by land and sea, couldn't save them either.

"The fierce tribes of Lusitania and Spain were conquered as well. Even the ocean and its tides, which terrified the people who lived there before, couldn't protect them. Rome carried its arms beyond the Pillars of Hercules, crossed the Pyrenees as though walking among the clouds, and subdued those nations.

"One Roman legion is enough to guard them, even though they were difficult to conquer and live so far from Rome.

"Who among you hasn't heard about the Germans? You have often seen them yourselves. They are tall and strong, and Roman armies capture them everywhere. These Germans live in a huge country. Their courage is greater than their bodies, they despise death, and when they are angry, they are fiercer than wild animals.

"Still, the Rhine limits their attacks, and eight Roman legions have brought them under control. Some Germans were taken captive and became servants. The rest of the nation had to save itself by fleeing.

"You trust in the walls of Jerusalem. Think about the walls the Britons had. The Romans sailed across the sea, invaded their island, and conquered them while the ocean surrounded them. Their island is almost as large as the whole inhabited earth, yet four Roman legions are enough to guard it.

"Why should I say more? The Parthians are among the most warlike people in the world. They rule many nations and are surrounded by great armies, yet they send hostages to Rome. You can see their nobles in Italy, where this greatest nation of the East submits to Rome under the name of peace.

"Almost every people under the sun obeys Roman arms. Will you be the only people to fight them? Remember what happened to Carthage. Its people boasted about the great Hannibal and their noble Phoenician ancestry, but Scipio defeated them.

"The Cyrenians, who came from the Spartans, couldn't stop Roman power. Neither could the Marmaridae, whose land reaches toward regions where no one can live because there is no water. The Syrtes, a place frightening even to hear described, couldn't stop Rome. The Nasamones, the Moors, and the countless Numidians couldn't stop Roman courage either.

"Look at Africa, the third great part of the inhabited earth. Its nations are so numerous that they are hard to count. The Atlantic Ocean and the Pillars of Hercules bound it on one side, and its land supports countless Ethiopians as far as the Red Sea. Rome has conquered all of it.

"Africa supplies Rome with the yearly harvest that feeds its people for eight months of the year. It also pays every kind of tribute and provides revenue for the needs of the government. The people there don't consider it shameful to obey Rome, even though only one Roman legion remains among them.

"There is no need to prove Roman power by talking about distant countries. Egypt, which is near us, shows enough. Egypt reaches toward Ethiopia, Arabia Felix, and India. Its population is about seven and a half million, not counting the people of Alexandria, as can be seen from the poll tax.

"Egypt isn't ashamed to submit to Rome, even though Alexandria gives it a strong reason to revolt. The city is crowded with people and wealth, and it is enormous, measuring thirty furlongs in length and at least ten in width.

"Egypt pays more money to Rome in one month than you pay in a whole year. In addition to its money, it sends grain to Rome that supports the city for four months.

"Egypt is also protected by deserts that are nearly impossible to cross, seas without harbors, rivers, and lakes. None of these defenses has been too strong for Roman fortune. Two legions stationed in Alexandria control both the distant parts of Egypt and the regions where the more noble Macedonians live.

"Where will you find allies? Will they come from lands no one inhabits? Nearly everyone in the inhabited world is under Roman rule.

"Perhaps you hope that Jews living beyond the Euphrates, in Adiabene, will come to your aid. They won't involve themselves in an unjust war. Even if they wanted to follow such bad advice, the Parthians wouldn't allow it. The Parthians need to keep their treaty with Rome. If anyone under their rule marched against the Romans, the Parthians would be accused of breaking their agreement.

"That leaves only one hope, the help of God. But God's favor is already with the Romans. No empire so great could have been established without God's providence.

"Think about how difficult it will be to keep your religious customs during this war. They are hard enough to observe when you are fighting people you can defeat. How can you expect God's help when you will be forced to break his laws? If you keep the Sabbath and refuse to act on that day, the enemy will easily capture you.

"Your ancestors learned this when Pompey attacked them. He made his strongest efforts to take the city on the very days when the Jews were resting.

"But if you break the law during the war, what reason will you have left for fighting? Your concern should be to avoid doing anything against the traditions of your ancestors. How can you ask God to help you while you willingly violate your own religion?

"Everyone who goes to war depends either on divine help or on human strength. Your war will cut you off from both. Those who insist on fighting are choosing certain destruction.

"If you are determined to destroy yourselves, why not kill your children and wives with your own hands and burn this beautiful city? At least then you would avoid the shame of being defeated.

"But my friends, it would be far better to see the coming storm while your ship is still in the harbor. Don't leave the port and sail into the middle of a hurricane. We pity people who fall into great disasters without seeing them coming. But a person who rushes knowingly into destruction deserves blame instead of pity.

"No one should imagine that you can enter this war by agreement, or that the Romans will treat you gently once they have conquered you. They will likely burn your holy city and destroy your nation as an example to other peoples.

"Those of you who survive will have nowhere to escape. Every nation already has Rome as its master, or fears that Rome will soon become its master.

"The danger won't affect only the Jews who live here. It will reach Jews in every other city as well. There is no inhabited country without Jewish communities. If you go to war, your enemies will kill those Jews because of your revolt.

"Every city with a Jewish population could be filled with slaughter because of a few men. The people who kill them may be forgiven because they will claim that they are punishing enemies. But if no such slaughter takes place, remember how wicked it would be for you to take up arms against people who have treated you kindly.

"Have pity, then. If not for your children and wives, at least have pity on this great city and its sacred walls. Spare the temple. Protect this holy house and its treasures for yourselves.

"If the Romans gain control of you, they won't continue to spare those things. Your former protection of the temple will have been repaid with ingratitude.

"I call your sanctuary as my witness. I call the holy angels of God as witnesses. I call this land, which belongs to all of us, as a witness. I haven't held anything back that could help save you.

"If you follow the advice you ought to follow, you and I will share the same peace. But if you give yourselves over to your anger, you will face dangers from which I will be free."

When Agrippa finished speaking, he and his sister began to weep. Their tears restrained much of the people's anger. Still, the crowd shouted that they didn't want to fight the Romans. They wanted to fight Florus because of everything he had done to them.

Agrippa answered that their actions had already begun to look like a war against Rome.

"You have refused to pay the tribute owed to Caesar. You have also cut off the temple colonnades from the tower of Antonia. If you reconnect the colonnades and pay the tribute, you can remove every reason for revolt.

"The fortress no longer belongs to Florus, and the tribute money isn't being paid to Florus."

CHAPTER 17

How the War Between the Jews and the Romans Began, and the Story of Manahem

The people accepted this advice and went up to the Temple with the king and Bernice. They began rebuilding the colonnades. The rulers and senators also divided themselves among the villages and collected the taxes. Before long, they had gathered the forty talents that were still owed. In this way, Agrippa brought the threatened war to an end for the time being.

He also tried to persuade the people to obey Florus until Caesar sent someone to replace him. But this only made the people angrier. They insulted the king and forced him out of the city. Some of the rebels even had the nerve to throw stones at him.

When the king saw that the men calling for rebellion could not be restrained, and when he became angry over the insults he had received, he sent the rulers and other powerful men to Florus in Caesarea. He told Florus to appoint whoever he considered suitable to collect the taxes in the country. Agrippa then returned to his own kingdom.

Around this time, some of the men who had stirred up the people and urged them toward war attacked a fortress called Masada. They captured it by treachery, killed the Roman soldiers stationed there, and placed men from their own party in charge of it.

At the same time, Eleazar, the son of Ananias the high priest, was serving as commander of the Temple. He was a bold young man, and he persuaded the priests who performed the sacred services to accept no gift or sacrifice from any foreigner.

This was the real beginning of the war between the Jews and the Romans. The Jews rejected Caesar's sacrifice for this reason. Many of the high priests and other leading men pleaded with them not to stop the sacrifice, since it had always been offered for the rulers. But the rebels refused to listen.

They trusted in their numbers, because the strongest part of the rebel party supported them. Still, their greatest respect was given to Eleazar, the commander of the Temple.

The powerful men gathered with the high priests. The leading Pharisees also joined them. They believed everything was at risk and that their troubles were becoming impossible to cure, so they met to decide what should be done.

They decided to try to persuade the rebels with words. They gathered the people in front of the Brazen Gate, the gate of the inner Temple court, which faced east toward the sunrise.

First, they spoke of their anger over the attempt to begin a revolt and bring such a terrible war upon their country. Then they showed that the rebels' argument could not be defended.

They reminded the people that their ancestors had decorated much of the Temple with gifts from foreigners. The Jews had always accepted offerings brought by other nations. They had not rejected anyone's sacrifice, since doing so would be a serious act of impiety. In fact, they had placed many foreign gifts around the Temple, where they could still be seen after all those years.

The leaders warned that the rebels were now provoking the Romans to take up arms against them. They were inviting the Romans to make war on the Jewish nation. They were introducing strange new rules about divine worship and risking the judgment that their city would be condemned for impiety. They were refusing to let anyone but Jews offer sacrifices or worship in the Temple.

If such a law were imposed against one private person, they said, everyone would consider it cruel and inhuman. Yet the rebels showed no concern for the Romans or Caesar, and they even refused to accept offerings made for Caesar.

The leaders also warned that if the Jews rejected the Romans' sacrifices, the Romans might refuse to allow the Jews to offer their own sacrifices. Jerusalem could lose its position as the chief city unless the rebels quickly changed their minds, restored the sacrifices according to the old custom, and corrected the insult before the people they had offended heard about it.

While they were speaking, the leaders brought forward priests who knew the customs of the nation. These priests testified that their ancestors had always accepted sacrifices from foreign nations.

Still, not one of the rebels would listen. Even the men who served in the Temple refused to carry out the sacred services. Instead, they were preparing everything needed to begin the war.

The powerful men saw that they could not put down the revolt. They also realized that if the Romans attacked, they would be the first to suffer. So they tried to protect themselves.

They sent one group of ambassadors to Florus. Simon, the son of Ananias, was the chief among them. They sent another group to Agrippa. The most important men in that group were Saul, Antipas, and Costobarus, all of whom were related to the king.

They asked both Florus and Agrippa to come to Jerusalem with an army and destroy the rebels before the revolt became too strong to control.

This message pleased Florus, since he wanted a war to break out. He gave the ambassadors no answer at all.

Agrippa, on the other hand, was concerned about both sides, the people who were rebelling and those who would have to fight them. He wanted to preserve the Jews for the Romans, and the Temple and the capital city for the Jews. He also understood that continued disorder would not help him.

So he sent three thousand horsemen to aid the people. They came from Auranitis, Batanea, and Trachonitis. Darius, the king's cavalry commander, led them, with Philip, the son of Jacimus, who commanded the army.

The powerful men, the high priests, and all the people who wanted peace gained courage from this. They seized the upper city, Mount Zion, while the rebels controlled the lower city and the Temple.

Both sides constantly attacked each other with stones, slings, and darts. At times, groups made sudden attacks and fought hand to hand. The rebels were bolder, but the king's soldiers had better military skill.

The king's soldiers focused mainly on capturing the Temple and driving out the men who had profaned it. The rebels, led by Eleazar, tried to take the upper city in addition to the places they already held.

For seven days, the two sides continued killing one another. Neither side surrendered the part of the city it had captured.

The next day was the Festival of Xylophory. On this festival, everyone was expected to bring wood for the altar so there would always be enough fuel for the sacred fire, which was never allowed to go out.

That day, the rebels prevented the other side from taking part in this religious duty. They also joined forces with many of the Sicarii. That was the name given to robbers who carried short swords called sicae beneath their clothing.

With these men among them, the rebels became more confident and pushed their attack further. The king's soldiers were overwhelmed by the rebels' numbers and courage. They were forced to retreat and were driven out of the upper city.

The rebels then burned the house of Ananias the high priest, along with the palaces of Agrippa and Bernice. After that, they set fire to the building where the public records were stored.

They wanted to destroy the contracts held by creditors and cancel the debts recorded in them. By doing this, they hoped to win over the many people who owed money. They also wanted to persuade the poor to join the revolt, since they would no longer have to fear the wealthy creditors.

The keepers of the records fled, and the rebels burned the documents. After destroying what held the city's debts together, they attacked their enemies.

Some of the powerful men and high priests hid in underground passages. Others fled with the king's soldiers to the upper palace and immediately shut the gates. Ananias the high priest and the ambassadors who had been sent to Agrippa were among those who took refuge there.

The rebels were satisfied with the victory they had won and with the buildings they had burned, so they did not continue the attack that day.

The following day was the fifteenth day of the month Lous, called Ab by the Jews. The rebels attacked Antonia and besieged the Roman garrison there for two days. They finally captured the fortress, killed the soldiers, and set the citadel on fire.

Afterward, they marched against the palace where the king's soldiers had taken refuge. The rebels divided themselves into four groups and attacked the walls.

The soldiers inside did not dare to make a sortie because the attackers were so numerous. Instead, they took positions behind the defenses and in the towers, shooting at the rebels below. Many of the robbers were killed beneath the walls.

The fighting continued day and night. The rebels expected the soldiers inside to grow tired because they were running out of food. The soldiers, on the other hand, hoped the rebels outside would lose heart because of the long siege.

During this time, a man named Manahem, the son of Judas the Galilean, gathered some important followers and went to Masada. He was a clever speaker who had once accused the Jews under Cyrenius of being subject to the Romans after God alone.

At Masada, Manahem broke open King Herod's armory. He took weapons not only for his own followers but also for other robbers. He used these armed men as his personal guard and returned to Jerusalem like a king.

Manahem became the leader of the revolt and ordered the siege to continue. The rebels lacked the proper tools, however, and could not easily undermine the wall because the defenders were shooting down at them from above.

Even so, they dug a tunnel from a great distance beneath one of the towers. The tower began to lean. The rebels then set fire to everything that could burn and left the area. When the supports beneath the tower had been destroyed by the fire, the tower suddenly collapsed.

The rebels discovered that the defenders had built another wall behind it. The soldiers inside had realized what the rebels were doing, probably because they felt the tower shaking as the tunnel was dug beneath it. They had prepared a second defense before the tower fell.

The rebels had expected to capture the fortress, so the sight of the new wall startled them. The defenders then sent word to Manahem and the other rebel leaders, asking permission to leave under an agreement.

The rebels allowed the king's soldiers and their fellow Jews to leave. The Roman soldiers who remained were discouraged. They knew they could not fight their way through such a large crowd. They also thought it would be shameful to ask the rebels for a pledge of safety, and they did not trust the rebels to honor one even if they gave it.

So the Romans abandoned their camp, which was easy for the rebels to seize, and fled to the royal towers called Hippicus, Phasaelus, and Mariamne.

Manahem and his followers attacked the camp after the soldiers had fled. They killed as many of the Romans as they could catch before they reached the towers. They also took the supplies the soldiers had left behind and burned the camp.

This happened on the sixth day of the month Gorpieus, which the Jews call Elul.

The next day, the robbers found Ananias the high priest hiding in an aqueduct. They killed him and his brother Hezekiah.

After this, the rebels surrounded the towers and guarded them closely so none of the soldiers inside could escape.

The capture of the strongholds and the death of Ananias the high priest made Manahem proud and cruel. Since he believed no one could challenge his authority, he became an unbearable tyrant.

Eleazar and his followers argued against him. They said that the Jews had rebelled against the Romans because they wanted freedom, so they should not hand that freedom over to one of their own people. They said it was shameful to accept a master who was no better than themselves, even if he did not commit acts of violence.

If the people needed someone to direct public affairs, they said, they should choose anyone but Manahem.

Manahem went to the Temple to worship in a display of royal splendor. He wore royal clothing, and his followers went with him in full armor.

Eleazar and his men attacked him there. The rest of the people joined them. They picked up stones and threw them at Manahem, believing that if they destroyed him, the entire revolt would collapse.

Manahem and his followers resisted for a while. But when they saw that the whole crowd was attacking them, they fled in every direction. Those who were caught were killed, and the people searched for those who had hidden.

A few escaped secretly to Masada. One of them was Eleazar, the son of Jairus, who was related to Manahem. He later became a tyrant at Masada.

Manahem himself fled to a place called Ophla and hid there. The people found him alive and dragged him out before everyone. They tortured him in many ways and then killed him. They also killed the officers who had served under him, especially Apsalom, the chief instrument of Manahem's tyranny.

Up to this point, the people had supported Eleazar and his followers because they hoped Manahem's death might bring an end to the rebellion's worst actions.

The rebels, however, had no desire to end the war. They believed they could now continue the fighting with less danger because Manahem was dead.

The people repeatedly begged them to stop attacking the soldiers, but the rebels only pressed the siege harder.

At last, Metilius, the Roman commander, sent a message to Eleazar. He asked that the Romans be allowed to keep their lives, while agreeing to surrender their weapons and everything else they possessed.

The rebels accepted the request. They sent Gorion, the son of Nicodemus; Ananias, the son of Sadduk; and Judas, the son of Jonathan to promise the Romans safety. The ambassadors gave them assurances and swore oaths that the soldiers would not be harmed.

Metilius then led his soldiers down from the fortress. While the soldiers were still armed, none of the rebels attacked them, and there was no obvious sign of treachery.

But once the Romans had laid down their shields and swords according to the agreement, and the rebels no longer appeared to have any reason to fear them, Eleazar's men suddenly attacked. They surrounded the soldiers and killed them.

The Romans did not defend themselves or beg for mercy. They only cried out that the rebels had broken their agreement and violated their oaths.

All the soldiers were killed except Metilius. When he begged for his life, he promised to become a Jew and accept circumcision. The rebels spared him, but they killed everyone else.

The Roman loss was small, since only a few men had been killed from such a large army. Even so, the massacre looked like a warning of the destruction that would soon fall upon the Jews.

When the people saw that the city had allowed such an act to take place, they openly mourned. They believed the murder had created a war that could no longer be avoided. The city had been polluted by such wickedness, and it was reasonable to expect punishment from God even if the Jews managed to escape punishment from the Romans.

Jerusalem filled with sorrow. The more moderate people were troubled because they feared that they might be punished for the crimes of the rebels.

The massacre took place on the Sabbath, the day when the Jews rest from their work for the sake of divine worship.

CHAPTER 18

The Disasters and Massacres That Befell the Jews

On the very same day and at the very hour when the Roman soldiers were killed, the people of Caesarea also slaughtered the Jews who lived among them. It seemed as though Providence had directed both events to happen at once. In a single hour, more than twenty thousand Jews were killed, and Caesarea was emptied of its Jewish population. Florus captured those who tried to escape and sent them in chains to the galleys.

The news of what had happened at Caesarea filled the whole Jewish nation with anger. The people divided into several groups and attacked the villages and cities of the Syrians. They destroyed Philadelphia, Sebonitis, Gerasa, Pella, Scythopolis, Gadara, and Hippos. They then moved through Gaulanitis, destroying some cities and setting others on fire. After that, they attacked Kedasa, which belonged to the Tyrians, along with Ptolemais, Gaba, and Caesarea.

Sebaste, also called Samaria, and Askelon were unable to resist them. The Jews burned both cities to the ground. They also completely destroyed Anthedon and Gaza. Many villages around each of these cities were plundered, and countless men who were captured were put to death.

The Syrians answered the Jews with massacres of their own. They killed every Jew they caught in their cities, not only because of the hatred they had carried against them for so long, but also because they feared what the Jews might do to them. The disorder spread through all Syria. Every city was divided into two hostile camps, each one setting up its own army against the other. Each side believed it could survive only by destroying the other.

The days were spent in bloodshed, while the nights were filled with fear. In some ways, the nights were worse. Even after the Syrians believed they had destroyed the Jews, they still suspected those who favored Judaism. Since neither side wanted to kill everyone who was merely suspected of supporting the enemy, both sides feared such people when they were mixed in among them, as though they were certainly foreigners.

Greed also drove people to murder their opponents. Even men who had once seemed gentle and kind toward their neighbors joined in. They plundered the possessions of the dead without fear and carried the spoils home as if they had won them in a lawful battle. The man who took the largest share was praised as honorable because people believed he had defeated the greatest number of enemies.

It became common to see cities filled with unburied bodies. The dead included old men and infants, all lying scattered together. Women also lay among them, their bodies left uncovered. The whole province was filled with horrors that words could not describe, and the fear of even worse acts was greater than the suffering that had already taken place.

Until this point, the fighting had been between the Jews and foreigners. But when the Jews entered the area of Scythopolis, they found that some of their own people had joined their enemies. These Jewish residents had placed their personal safety above their connection to the Jewish nation, and they fought against their own countrymen.

They fought so eagerly that the people of Scythopolis began to suspect them. They feared that these Jews might attack the city during the night and then use that attack to prove to their own people that they had only pretended to turn against them. The people of Scythopolis therefore told them that, if they wanted to prove their loyalty to the city and confirm their agreement with a foreign people, they should leave the city with their families and camp in a nearby grove.

The Jewish residents did exactly as they were told, without suspecting the plan against them. The people of Scythopolis waited for two days, allowing them to feel secure. On the third night, they seized the opportunity and attacked. They cut the throats of some while they were unguarded and killed others as they slept. More than thirteen thousand people were murdered. Afterward, the attackers took everything the victims possessed.

What happened to Simon also deserves to be told. He was the son of Saul, a well-known man among the Jews. Simon stood out from the others because of his physical strength and his courage. He used both qualities, however, to harm his own people.

Every day, he went out and killed many of the Jews of Scythopolis. He often drove them into flight, and he alone was frequently the reason his side won its battles. But he eventually received a fitting punishment for killing people who belonged to the same nation as he did.

When the people of Scythopolis began throwing their weapons at the Jews in the grove, Simon drew his sword. He didn't attack the enemy, because he saw that he could do nothing against such a large crowd. Instead, he cried out in a way that moved everyone who heard him:

"O people of Scythopolis, I deserve what is happening to me because of what I did among you. I proved my loyalty to you by killing so many of my own relatives. We are now suffering the treachery of foreigners, just as we acted wickedly against our own nation.

"I will die by my own hand, polluted as I am. I shouldn't die by the hands of our enemies. Let my death punish me for my crimes, and let it also show my courage. No enemy should be able to boast that he killed me, and no one should insult me as I fall."

After saying this, Simon looked around at his family with both pity and anger. His family included his wife and children, as well as his elderly parents. First, he seized his father by his gray hair and drove his sword through him. His mother willingly received the same fate. He then killed his wife and children. Almost every member of his family offered themselves to his sword because they wanted to avoid being killed by the enemy.

When he had killed them all, Simon stood on top of their bodies where everyone could see him. He raised his right hand so that all would notice what he was about to do, then drove his sword into his own stomach.

This young man deserved pity because of his physical strength and courage. But he had promised foreigners that he would remain loyal to them against his own people, and for that he suffered a deserved fate.

The massacre at Scythopolis was not the only attack against the Jews. Other cities also rose up against the Jews who lived among them. The people of Askelon killed 2,500 Jews. The people of Ptolemais killed 2,000 and imprisoned many others. The people of Tyre also killed a large number, while keeping even more in prison.

The people of Hippos and Gadara acted in the same way. They killed the boldest Jews and imprisoned those they feared. The other cities of Syria did whatever their hatred or fear led them to do.

Only the people of Antioch, Sidon, and Apamea spared the Jews who lived among them. They refused to kill them or place them in chains. Perhaps they did this because their own numbers were so great that they had no reason to fear the Jews. But I believe much of their mercy came from seeing that the Jews had not tried to cause any trouble.

The people of Gerasa also did no harm to the Jews who remained among them. Those who wanted to leave were escorted safely to the borders of the city.

A plot was also formed against the Jews in the kingdom of Agrippa. Agrippa himself had gone to Antioch to meet Cestius Gallus, but he had left one of his companions, a man named Noarus, in charge of public affairs. Noarus was related to King Sohaemus.

At that time, seventy men came from Batanea. They were the most prominent and sensible men among the people there. They asked Noarus to give them an army so they could have enough protection if a revolt broke out against them.

Instead, Noarus sent some of the king's soldiers against them during the night and had all seventy men killed. He carried out this bold act without Agrippa's permission. Noarus was so greedy for money that he was willing to act wickedly against his own countrymen, even though his actions brought ruin upon the kingdom.

He continued treating the people with cruelty and breaking the law until Agrippa learned what he had done. Agrippa didn't dare put Noarus to death because he respected Sohaemus, but he immediately removed him from his office.

The rebels then seized a fortress called Cypros, which stood above Jericho. They killed the entire garrison and destroyed the fortifications. Around the same time, the Jewish population at Machaerus persuaded the Romans stationed there to leave the fortress and hand it over to them.

The Romans were afraid that the Jews would capture the place by force, so they agreed to leave under certain conditions. Once the Romans had received the guarantees they demanded, they handed over the fortress. The people of Machaerus placed their own garrison there and kept control of the place.

In Alexandria, conflict between the local population and the Jews had continued for a long time. It had begun when Alexander the Great saw how willingly the Jews helped him in his war against the Egyptians. As a reward, he gave the Jews the same rights in Alexandria that the Greeks enjoyed.

That privilege continued under Alexander's successors. They also assigned the Jews a separate part of the city so they could live there without being forced into close contact with foreigners. The rulers gave them another honor as well, allowing them to be called Macedonians.

After the Romans took control of Egypt, neither Julius Caesar nor any ruler who followed him reduced the privileges Alexander had granted the Jews. Even so, fights between the Jews and Greeks continued. The governors punished many people every day, but the conflict kept getting worse.

At this time, when riots were breaking out in many other places, the trouble in Alexandria became even more violent. The people of Alexandria held a public meeting in the theater to discuss an embassy they planned to send to Nero. A large number of Jews entered the theater.

When their enemies saw them, they immediately shouted that the Jews were enemies who had come to spy on them. The crowd rushed at the Jews and attacked them. Those who couldn't escape were killed as they ran.

The Alexandrians captured three men and dragged them away so they could burn them alive. All the Jews then gathered together to defend them. At first, they threw stones at the Greeks. Then they took lamps and rushed into the theater. They threatened to burn every person there.

They would soon have carried out the threat if Tiberius Alexander, the governor of the city, hadn't stopped them. He didn't begin by using weapons against them. Instead, he secretly sent some of the leading men among them to ask the Jews to remain calm and avoid provoking the Roman army.

The rebels mocked Tiberius Alexander's pleas and insulted him for making them.

When Tiberius Alexander saw that the rebels would not calm down until some great disaster fell upon them, he sent the two Roman legions stationed in Alexandria against them. He also sent 5,000 other soldiers who had recently arrived from Libya. These troops were allowed not only to kill the Jews but also to plunder their possessions and burn their homes.

The soldiers rushed into the part of the city called Delta, where the Jewish population lived. They carried out their orders, though some of them were killed as well. The Jews gathered together and placed their best-armed men at the front. They resisted the Romans for a long time.

But when the Jews began to retreat, the Romans slaughtered them without mercy. Some were caught in the open, while others were driven into their houses. The Romans first plundered the houses and then set them on fire. They showed no mercy to infants and no respect for the elderly. They continued killing people of every age until the entire area was covered in blood.

Fifty thousand Jews lay dead in heaps. The rest would also have been killed if they hadn't begged for mercy. Alexander felt pity for them and ordered the Romans to withdraw. The soldiers were used to obeying orders, so they stopped killing as soon as they received the command.

The people of Alexandria hated the Jews so fiercely, however, that it was difficult to pull them away from the attack. They were also unwilling to leave the bodies of those who had been killed.

This was the terrible disaster that struck the Jews of Alexandria at that time.

After hearing what had happened, Cestius decided he could no longer remain inactive while the Jews everywhere were taking up arms. He took the entire Twelfth Legion from Antioch. From each of the other legions, he selected 2,000 soldiers. He also brought six cohorts of infantry and four troops of cavalry, along with soldiers supplied by allied kings.

Antiochus sent 2,000 horsemen and 3,000 infantry, supported by the same number of archers. Agrippa sent 3,000 infantry and 1,000 horsemen. Sohaemus joined the army with 4,000 soldiers. One-third of his men were horsemen, and most of the rest were archers.

Cestius marched with this army toward Ptolemais. Large numbers of soldiers also came from the free cities. They didn't have the same experience in warfare as the Roman troops, but their eagerness and hatred of the Jews made up for their lack of skill.

Agrippa traveled with Cestius. He guided the army through the country and advised Cestius about what should be done. Cestius took part of his forces and hurried toward Zabulon, a strong city in Galilee. The city was also called the City of Men, and it marked the border between the territory of Ptolemais and the Jewish nation.

Cestius found the city abandoned by its men. Most of the people had fled into the mountains, but the city was filled with valuable goods. Cestius allowed his soldiers to plunder it and then set it on fire. Zabulon was a beautiful city, with houses built in the style of those in Tyre, Sidon, and Berytus.

Afterward, Cestius marched through the surrounding country. He seized everything that fell into his hands and burned the nearby villages. Then he returned to Ptolemais.

While the Syrians, especially the people of Berytus, were busy plundering, the Jews regained their courage. They knew that Cestius had withdrawn, so they suddenly attacked the soldiers who had been left behind. They killed about 2,000 of them.

Cestius then marched from Ptolemais to Caesarea. He sent part of his army ahead to Joppa and ordered them to keep the city if they could capture it by surprise. If the people of Joppa discovered the attack, the soldiers were told to wait for Cestius and the rest of the army.

Some of the troops hurried along the coast, while others approached by land. Attacking the city from both sides, they captured it without difficulty. The people of Joppa had made no preparations to escape and had gathered nothing they could use for defense.

The soldiers fell upon them and killed them along with their families. They then plundered the city and burned it. The number of people killed was 8,400.

Cestius also sent a large force of cavalry into the district of Narbatene, which bordered Caesarea. The soldiers destroyed the countryside, killed many of its people, plundered their possessions, and burned their villages.

Cestius sent Gallus, the commander of the Twelfth Legion, into Galilee. He gave him as many troops as he believed were needed to bring the region under Roman control.

Sepphoris, the strongest city in Galilee, welcomed Gallus with joyful shouts. Because the city chose this sensible course, the other cities remained quiet as well. The rebels and bandits fled to a mountain in the center of Galilee, directly across from Sepphoris. The mountain was called Asamon.

Gallus brought his army against them. The rebels held the higher ground above the Romans, so they could easily throw their weapons down upon the soldiers as they approached. They killed about 200 Romans.

The Romans then marched around the mountain and reached the ground above their enemies. The rebels were quickly defeated. They wore only light armor and couldn't withstand soldiers covered in full armor. Once they were beaten, they also couldn't escape the Roman cavalry.

Only a few managed to hide in places among the mountains that were difficult to reach. More than 2,000 others were killed.

CHAPTER 19

What Cestius Did Against the Jews, How He Retreated from Jerusalem Without Any Good Reason, and the Heavy Losses His Army Suffered During the Retreat

Gallus saw that nothing more was likely to cause an uprising in Galilee, so he returned with his army to Caesarea. Cestius, however, moved forward with all his forces and marched to Antipatris. When he learned that a large group of Jewish soldiers had gathered at a tower called Aphek, he sent a detachment to attack them. The Jews fled in fear before the fighting even began. The Romans entered their abandoned camp, burned it, and set fire to the villages around it.

Cestius then marched from Antipatris to Lydda. He found the city almost empty of men, since the entire population had gone up to Jerusalem for the Feast of Tabernacles. Still, he killed fifty people who remained, burned the city, and continued on his way. He went up through Bethoron and set up his camp at a place called Gabao, about fifty furlongs from Jerusalem.

When the Jews saw that the war was moving toward their capital, they left the feast and took up their weapons. Their large numbers gave them great confidence, and they rushed into battle in a sudden and disorderly attack, shouting loudly. They paid no attention to the fact that it was the seventh day, even though they honored the Sabbath more than any other day. Their anger made them forget their usual religious observance, but it also gave them such force that they overwhelmed the Romans.

The Jews broke through the Roman ranks and pushed straight through the middle of the army, killing many soldiers as they went. If the cavalry, along with the infantry who were still fresh, hadn't turned around and helped the part of the army that was breaking apart, Cestius and his entire force would have been in serious danger.

The Romans lost 515 men, including 400 infantry soldiers and the rest cavalry. The Jews lost only twenty-two men. Among the Jewish dead were Monobazus and Kenedeus, relatives of Monobazus, the king of Adiabene. Next to them in courage were Niger of Perea and Silas of Babylon. Silas had once served in King Agrippa's army before deserting and joining the Jews.

After the front of the Jewish army had been pushed back, the Jews withdrew into the city. Simon, the son of Giora, still attacked the rear of the Roman army as it climbed toward Bethoron. He threw the last part of the army into confusion, captured many of the animals carrying the Roman weapons, and brought them into the city.

Cestius remained there for three days. During that time, the Jews took control of the high ground around the city, posted guards at the entrances, and made it clear that they were ready to attack as soon as the Romans began to march.

When Agrippa saw that the Roman army was in danger, surrounded as it was by such a large number of enemies on the mountains, he decided to try to settle the matter by speaking with the Jews. He hoped either to persuade all of them to stop fighting or, at least, to separate the more reasonable men from the rebels.

He sent Borceus and Phebus, two men from his own party who were well known to the Jews. They promised that Cestius would offer them his hand and guarantee the Romans' complete forgiveness for everything they had done, if they would lay down their weapons and come over to him.

The rebels feared that the whole crowd might accept Agrippa's offer in the hope of saving themselves. So they decided to attack and kill the messengers. They killed Phebus before he could say a word, but Borceus was only wounded and escaped by running away.

The people were furious when they heard what had happened. They beat the rebels with stones and clubs, then drove them back into the city.

Cestius saw that the disagreement among the Jews gave him a good chance to attack. He took his entire army against them, drove them away, and pursued them to Jerusalem. He then set up his camp on a hill called Scopus, or the Watchtower, about seven furlongs from the city.

For three days, he didn't attack. He expected that the people inside might give in. During that time, he sent many soldiers into the nearby villages to seize their grain.

On the fourth day, the thirtieth day of the month Hyperbereteus, or Tisri, he arranged his army for battle and led it into the city. The people were being controlled by the rebels, but the rebels themselves were terrified by the Romans' orderly advance. They left the suburbs and withdrew into the inner part of the city and into the Temple.

When Cestius entered the city, he set fire to the section called Bezetha, also known as the New City, or Cenopolis. He also burned the timber market. After that, he moved into the Upper City and set up his camp across from the royal palace.

If he had attacked the walls at that moment, he would have taken the city at once and ended the war. But Tyrannius Priscus, the army's muster-master, along with many of the cavalry officers, had been bribed by Florus. They persuaded Cestius not to make the attack. Because of that decision, the war continued for a long time, and the Jews suffered disasters that could not be repaired.

During this time, several leading men in the city were persuaded by Ananus, the son of Jonathan, to invite Cestius inside. They were ready to open the gates for him. But Cestius ignored their offer. Part of the reason was his anger toward the Jews, and part was that he didn't believe they were truly prepared to surrender.

He waited so long that the rebels discovered what Ananus and his followers were planning. They threw Ananus and the others down from the wall. Then they pelted them with stones and forced them into their houses. The rebels themselves took up positions at the towers, where they threw spears at the Romans who tried to climb over the wall.

The Romans attacked the wall for five days, but they accomplished nothing. On the sixth day, Cestius chose many of his best soldiers and brought archers with them. He tried to break into the Temple from the northern side.

The Jews drove them away from the surrounding colonnades. Several times, they pushed the Romans back when they came close to the wall. At last, the huge number of darts forced the Romans to retreat.

The first line of Roman soldiers placed their shields against the wall. The soldiers behind them placed their shields over the first row, and the men behind them did the same. In this way, they formed what the Romans called the Testudo, or tortoise formation. The darts thrown at them struck the shields and slid away without causing harm.

Protected by this formation, the soldiers dug beneath the wall. They prepared everything needed to set fire to the Temple gate, and the Jews were unable to stop them.

A terrible fear seized the rebels. Many of them ran out of the city as if they believed it would fall at once. When the people saw the rebels giving way, they grew confident. They moved into the places the rebels had abandoned and prepared to open the gates and welcome Cestius as their protector.

If Cestius had continued the siege a little longer, he would certainly have taken the city. But, as I suppose, God had already turned against the city and the sanctuary, and for that reason Cestius was prevented from ending the war that very day.

Cestius didn't understand how close the besieged people were to giving up, and he didn't realize that the people were ready to support him. So he recalled his soldiers. He gave up hope of taking the city, even though no defeat had forced him to withdraw, and he retreated for no clear reason at all.

When the robbers saw this unexpected retreat, they regained their courage. They rushed after the rear of the Roman army and killed many cavalrymen and infantry soldiers. Cestius spent that night at the camp on Scopus.

The next day, he marched farther away, and this encouraged the Jews to keep pursuing him. They attacked the rear of the army again and again. They also attacked both sides of the Roman column, throwing their darts at an angle.

The soldiers at the rear didn't dare turn around to face those attacking them from behind. They believed the number of pursuers was enormous. They also couldn't drive away the Jews attacking them from the sides. Their armor and weapons made them slow, and they feared that breaking formation would destroy the army's order. The Jews, on the other hand, were lightly armed and ready to rush in and out of the fight.

Because of this, the Romans suffered heavy losses without being able to strike back. The Jews harassed them the entire way, broke apart their ranks, and killed the soldiers who became separated. Among the dead were Priscus, commander of the Sixth Legion; Longinus, a military tribune; and Emilius Secundus, commander of a cavalry troop.

The Romans reached Gabao, their former camp, only after great difficulty. They also lost much of their baggage. Cestius remained there for two days, unsure what to do. On the third day, he saw an even larger number of Jewish soldiers gathering around him. Every place nearby was filled with Jews, and he understood that staying any longer would only bring more enemies against him.

To make the army move faster, Cestius ordered his soldiers to throw away anything that might slow them down. They killed the mules and other animals, except for those carrying their darts and military machines. They kept those animals because they feared the Jews would capture the weapons.

Cestius then led the army toward Bethoron. The Jews didn't press them as hard in the open country. But when the Romans entered the narrow roads leading down from the hills, the Jews attacked them from every side.

Some Jews moved ahead of the army and blocked the narrow passages. Others pushed the soldiers at the rear down into the lower ground. The rest spread across the heights above the road and covered the Roman army with darts.

The infantry didn't know how to defend themselves, but the cavalry was in even greater danger. The horsemen were struck so heavily that they couldn't keep their ranks while moving along the road. The climbs were too steep for the cavalry to attack the Jews, and on both sides were valleys and cliffs where men and horses often fell.

There was nowhere to escape, and the Romans could find no way to protect themselves. Their distress became so great that they began to cry out and mourn like men who had lost all hope. The Jews answered with shouts of victory and encouraged one another. Their voices echoed through the hills, filled with both joy and anger.

The Jews were nearly ready to capture Cestius and his entire army when night came. The Romans fled into Bethoron, while the Jews took control of the surrounding ground and watched for the Romans to come out in the morning.

Cestius no longer hoped to move his army out in an orderly march, so he made plans to escape as quickly as possible. He chose 400 of his bravest soldiers and placed them at the strongest parts of the fortifications. He ordered them to raise the Roman standards when the morning watch began. This would make the Jews believe that the entire army was still in the camp.

Cestius took the rest of his forces and marched away in silence. He traveled thirty furlongs during the night.

When the Jews saw in the morning that the camp was empty, they attacked the 400 soldiers who had deceived them. They immediately threw their darts at them and killed every one of them. Then they set out after Cestius.

Cestius had already spent much of the night fleeing, and he moved even faster after daylight came. The Roman soldiers were so shocked and frightened that they abandoned their siege engines, their stone-throwing machines, and much of their other military equipment.

The Jews pursued the Romans as far as Antipatris. When they realized they couldn't catch them, they turned back. They gathered the engines, stripped the dead bodies, and collected the supplies the Romans had left behind. Then they returned to Jerusalem, running and singing.

The Jews had lost only a few men. The Romans had lost 5,300 infantry soldiers and 380 cavalrymen. This defeat took place on the eighth day of the month Dius, or Marcheshvan, in the twelfth year of Nero's reign.

CHAPTER 20

Cestius Sends Envoys to Nero. The People of Damascus Kill the Jews Living Among Them. After the People of Jerusalem Stop Chasing Cestius, They Return to the City, Prepare Its Defenses, and Appoint Many Commanders, Including Josephus, the Writer of These Books. An Account of His Administration

After this disaster had overtaken Cestius, many of the most important Jews escaped from the city, just as people leave a ship when they see that it is about to sink. Costobarus and Saul, who were brothers, fled with Philip, the son of Jacimus, commander of King Agrippa's army. They went to Cestius.

Antipas had also been trapped with them in the king's palace, but he refused to flee with them. He was later killed by the rebels, though I will give the details of his death in another place.

Cestius then sent Saul and his companions to Achaia, where Nero was staying. They went at their own request, so they could report the great danger they were facing and accuse Florus of starting the war. Cestius hoped that Nero's anger against Florus would lessen the danger he himself faced.

At that same time, the people of Damascus learned that the Romans had been defeated. They immediately began planning to kill the Jews who lived among them. The Jews had already been gathered together in the public exercise ground because the people of Damascus suspected them. Since they were all shut up in one place, the Damascenes thought the killings would be easy.

Still, they feared their own wives, almost all of whom followed the Jewish religion. Their main concern was to keep the plan hidden from them. They therefore attacked the Jews without warning and cut their throats. The Jews numbered ten thousand, they had no weapons, and they were trapped in a narrow place. In less than an hour, the Damascenes killed every one of them without anyone coming to their aid.

Those who had chased Cestius returned to Jerusalem. Some of the people who supported the Romans were forced to join them, while others were persuaded by their requests. Soon, a large crowd gathered in the Temple, and they appointed many commanders for the war.

Joseph, the son of Gorion, and Ananus the high priest were chosen to manage all affairs within the city. They were also ordered to repair the city walls. Eleazar, the son of Simon, was not given this authority, even though he had taken possession of the goods seized from the Romans, the money captured from Cestius, and a large part of the public treasury.

The people refused to appoint him because they saw that he had a tyrant's spirit, and his followers stood around him like armed guards. Yet the people needed Eleazar's money, and he used clever tricks to win them over. In the end, he deceived them and gained control of the city's public affairs.

They also appointed commanders for Idumea. These were Jesus, the son of Sapphias, one of the high priests, and Eleazar, the son of Ananias, the high priest. They ordered Niger, the governor of Idumea, to obey these commanders. Niger came from Perea, the land beyond the Jordan, which is why he was called the Peraite.

They also appointed commanders for the other parts of the country. Joseph, the son of Simon, was sent to govern Jericho. Manasseh was placed over Perea, and John the Essene was given command of the toparchy of Thamna. Lydda, Joppa, and Emmaus were added to his authority.

John, the son of Matthias, was made governor of the toparchies of Gophnitica and Acrabattene. Josephus, the son of Matthias, was placed over both Galilees. Gamala, the strongest city in that region, was also put under his command.

Each commander managed his own territory with as much energy and good judgment as he possessed. When Josephus arrived in Galilee, his first concern was to win the people's trust. He understood that if he gained their goodwill, he would succeed in most of his other duties, even if he failed in some matters.

He also knew that sharing part of his authority with the leading men would make them loyal friends. He believed the common people would trust him as well if he carried out his commands through men from their own country, men they already knew.

For this reason, he chose seventy of the wisest men in Galilee. They were also advanced in age, and he appointed them to govern the whole region. In every city, he appointed seven judges to settle smaller disputes. Major cases, especially those involving life and death, had to be brought before Josephus and the seventy elders.

After establishing these courts to settle disputes according to the law, Josephus turned his attention to protecting the people from outside attack. He knew the Romans would invade Galilee, so he built defensive walls at Jotapata, Bersabee, and Selamis. He also fortified Caphareccho, Japha, Sigo, Mount Tabor, Tarichee, and Tiberias.

He built walls around the caves near the lake of Gennesar, all of which were in Lower Galilee. In Upper Galilee, he fortified the Rock of the Achabari, Seph, Jamnith, and Meroth. In Gaulonitis, he strengthened Seleucia, Sogane, and Gamala.

Sepphoris was the only city that he allowed to build its own walls. Its people were wealthy, had enough resources for war, and needed no orders to prepare their defenses. The same was true of Gischala. John, the son of Levi, built its wall himself with Josephus's approval.

Josephus helped with the construction of all the other fortresses. He worked alongside the builders and stayed present to give whatever orders were needed. He also raised an army in Galilee of more than one hundred thousand young men. He armed them with old weapons that he had gathered and prepared for their use.

Josephus understood that Rome's strength came mainly from two things, its soldiers obeyed orders quickly, and they trained constantly with their weapons. He knew he couldn't teach his own men the skill that Roman soldiers gained through long experience. But he saw that the Romans were also effective because they had many officers to direct the troops.

For that reason, he organized his army in a way that copied the Roman system. He appointed many lower-ranking officers and divided the soldiers into different groups. Captains commanded groups of ten, others commanded groups of one hundred, and others commanded one thousand. Above them, he placed officers over even larger bodies of soldiers.

He taught the men how to send signals to one another, how to call soldiers forward and order them back by trumpet, and how to spread out the wings of an army. He showed them how to turn one wing around, how to help another wing that was under pressure, and how to defend the part of the army that had suffered the greatest loss.

He also trained them in courage and endurance. Most of all, he prepared them for war by explaining the discipline of the Romans. He told them they would face men who had conquered almost the whole inhabited world through the strength of their bodies and the courage of their hearts.

Josephus said he would test their discipline before they ever reached a battlefield. They had to stop committing the crimes they had made a habit of committing, including theft, robbery, violence, and cheating their own countrymen. They were not to treat harm done to their neighbors as a personal gain.

He told them that armies fight best when their soldiers have clear consciences. Wicked men, he said, would have more enemies than the people who attacked them. They would also have God himself fighting against them.

Josephus continued to teach them these things. He chose an army of sixty thousand infantry and two hundred fifty cavalrymen for the war. Along with them were about four thousand five hundred hired soldiers, whom he trusted greatly. He also kept six hundred men as his personal guard.

The cities could easily support most of the army, except for the hired soldiers. Each city named above sent half of its men to serve in the army and kept the other half at home to gather food and supplies. One group went to war while the other worked.

In this way, those who supplied the grain received payment from the soldiers through the protection the army gave them.

CHAPTER 21

Concerning John of Gischala. Josephus Foils John's Plots and Recovers Several Cities That Had Revolted Against Him

While Josephus was managing the affairs of Galilee, a treacherous man from Gischala rose against him. His name was John, and he was the son of Levi. He was far more cunning and dishonest than the other leading men of the region, and no one surpassed him in wicked behavior.

John had been poor at first, and for a long time his poverty prevented him from carrying out his evil plans. He was an excellent liar and had a remarkable skill for making people believe his stories. He considered it clever to deceive others, and he was willing to trick even those closest to him. He pretended to be kind and humane, but whenever he saw a chance for profit, he had no concern about shedding blood.

His ambitions were always great, even though he depended on petty and dishonest schemes to advance himself. He was especially skilled at stealing. After some time, he gathered companions to help him in his crimes. At first there were only a few, but their number grew as his wicked actions continued.

John made sure that his partners would be difficult to capture. He chose men with strong bodies, fearless minds, and experience in war. In time, he gathered about four hundred men, most of them from the region of Tyre. They were vagabonds who had fled from the villages around that city. With these men, he ravaged all of Galilee and stirred up many people who were already expecting a sudden war among them.

John's lack of money had prevented him from openly seeking power or advancing his position. But when he saw that Josephus valued his energy and ability, he persuaded him to place John in charge of repairing the walls of his hometown, Gischala. Through this work, John collected a large amount of money from the wealthy citizens.

He then devised another clever scheme. John claimed that the Jews living in Syria were required to use oil made by people outside their own nation. He asked Josephus for permission to send oil to those communities.

John bought four amphorae of oil with Tyrian money worth four Attic drachmae. He then sold each half-amphora for the same price. Galilee produced large amounts of oil, especially at that time, and John had exclusive permission to export it. By sending away great quantities, he collected an enormous sum of money.

He immediately used that money against Josephus, the man who had granted him the privilege. John believed that if he could overthrow Josephus, he would become governor of Galilee. He therefore ordered the robbers under his command to increase their attacks.

John hoped that the unrest would give him one of two opportunities. If Josephus went out to help the people, John would try to trap and kill him. If Josephus ignored the robbers, John would accuse him of neglecting the people and failing to protect the country.

John also spread a report throughout the region that Josephus intended to surrender the government to the Romans. In this and many other ways, he plotted to destroy Josephus.

At the same time, several young men from the village of Dabaritta were guarding the Great Plain. They set an ambush for Ptolemy, the steward of King Agrippa and Queen Bernice, and took everything he had with him.

Among the stolen goods were many expensive garments, a large number of silver cups, and six hundred pieces of gold. The young men couldn't hide what they had taken, so they brought everything to Josephus at Taricheae.

Josephus rebuked them for attacking the king and queen. He then placed the stolen goods in the care of Eneas, the most powerful man in Taricheae, intending to return everything to its owners at the proper time.

This decision placed Josephus in great danger. The thieves were angry because they hadn't received a share of the stolen property. They also understood what Josephus intended to do. He planned to return to the king and queen the goods they had worked so hard to steal.

The young men left during the night and went to their separate villages. There they told everyone that Josephus was planning to betray them. They stirred up such disorder in the neighboring cities that, by morning, one hundred thousand armed men had gathered.

The crowd packed into the hippodrome at Taricheae and shouted angrily against Josephus. Some called for him to be removed from office. Others demanded that he be burned.

John encouraged the crowd, as did Jesus, the son of Sapphias, who was then governor of Tiberias. Josephus's friends and bodyguards were so frightened by the attack that all but four of them fled.

Josephus was asleep when the remaining men woke him. The crowd was preparing to set fire to the house. The four guards urged him to escape, but Josephus wasn't surprised that his friends had deserted him, nor was he frightened by the great crowd gathered against him.

Instead, he went out to meet them. His clothes were torn, ashes had been sprinkled on his head, his hands were held behind him, and his sword hung from his neck.

When Josephus's friends, especially the people of Taricheae, saw him in this condition, they felt sorry for him. But the people who had come from the countryside, along with those who lived nearby and resented his rule, began to accuse him.

They demanded that he immediately produce the money that belonged to all of them and admit to the agreement he had supposedly made to betray them. Because of his appearance, they assumed he would deny nothing. They thought he had dressed himself in this pitiful manner to win their forgiveness.

But Josephus had adopted this humble appearance as part of a plan. He wanted to make the people who were angry with him turn against one another over the very matters that had caused their anger.

He promised to explain everything. When the crowd allowed him to speak, he said:

"I didn't intend to send this money back to Agrippa, and I didn't intend to keep it for myself. I have never considered someone who is your enemy to be my friend, and I have never considered anything that harms you to be good for me.

"But you people of Taricheae, your city needs stronger defenses than the other cities. You also need money to build a wall. I was afraid that the people of Tiberias and the other cities would make a plan to seize this property. That is why I intended to keep the money safe until I could surround your city with a wall.

"If this plan doesn't please you, I will bring out everything that was given to me and let you take it for yourselves. But if I have acted wisely for your benefit, then you may punish the man who tried to help you."

The people of Taricheae loudly praised Josephus. The people of Tiberias and the others in the crowd continued to insult him and threaten him.

The two sides stopped arguing with Josephus and began quarreling with one another. Josephus then became more confident because he could rely on the people of Taricheae, who numbered about forty thousand.

He spoke more boldly to the entire crowd and condemned them for their recklessness. He said that he would use the money to build walls around Taricheae and would also secure the other cities.

They would not lack money, he told them, if they could agree about whose benefit the money was meant to provide and stop attacking the man who had obtained it for them.

The rest of the crowd, realizing that they had been deceived, withdrew. They left angrily, however, and two thousand of them returned in armor to attack Josephus.

Josephus had already gone inside his house. The men surrounded it and threatened him. He used another trick to escape them.

He climbed onto the roof and raised his right hand, asking them to be quiet. Then he said:

"I can't tell what you want, and I can't understand what you're saying because of all the noise. I will meet every demand you make if you send some of your leaders inside to speak with me."

When the leading men and their commanders heard this, they entered the house. Josephus led them to a secluded part of the building and shut them inside a room.

He then ordered them to be beaten until their bodies were exposed and covered with blood. Meanwhile, the crowd remained outside the house, believing that Josephus was having a long discussion with the men who had gone inside.

Josephus soon ordered the doors to be opened. The men were sent outside, bloody and barely recognizable. The sight terrified the people who had threatened him. They threw down their weapons and ran away.

John's jealousy grew stronger after Josephus escaped this danger, so he formed another plot against him.

John pretended to be sick. He sent Josephus a letter asking permission to use the hot baths at Tiberias because they might restore his health.

Josephus had not yet discovered John's plans against him. He wrote to the governors of Tiberias and instructed them to provide John with lodging and everything else he needed.

After John had received this favor, he spent two days carrying out the purpose of his visit. He won some people over through false promises and others with money. In this way, he persuaded them to revolt against Josephus.

Silas, whom Josephus had appointed to guard the city, immediately wrote to Josephus and informed him of the plot.

As soon as Josephus received the letter, he marched throughout the night and reached Tiberias early the next morning. The people of the city came out to meet him.

John suspected that Josephus's arrival would harm his plans. He sent one of his friends to claim that he was sick and confined to bed, so he couldn't come out to greet Josephus.

Josephus gathered the people of Tiberias in the stadium and began speaking to them about the letter he had received. John secretly sent armed men and ordered them to kill Josephus.

When the people saw the soldiers drawing their swords, they shouted a warning. Josephus turned around and saw the swords almost at his throat. He hurried toward the shore and abandoned the speech he had begun.

He had been standing on a platform six cubits high. When he reached the water, he seized a ship in the harbor and jumped aboard with two of his guards. Then he fled into the middle of the lake.

The soldiers with Josephus immediately took up their weapons and marched against the conspirators. But Josephus feared that the jealousy of a few men would lead to civil war and destroy the city.

He sent word to his men that they should only protect themselves. They were not to kill anyone or accuse anyone because of the disorder that had occurred.

His men obeyed and remained quiet. But when the people from the surrounding countryside heard about the plot and learned who had planned it, they gathered in great numbers to oppose John.

John prevented them from carrying out their attack by fleeing to Gischala, his hometown.

The Galileans then came from their cities to support Josephus. Tens of thousands of armed men gathered and shouted that they had come to punish John, the man who had plotted against them. They threatened to burn both John and the city that had sheltered him.

Josephus thanked them for their loyalty, but he restrained their anger. He said that he intended to defeat his enemies through careful action rather than by killing them.

He identified by name the people in each city who had joined John's revolt. Those men had been pointed out to him by people who had come from the various cities.

Josephus then issued a public announcement. Anyone who refused to abandon John within five days would lose his property. His house and family would also be burned.

Three thousand men immediately deserted John, came to Josephus, and laid their weapons at his feet.

John then abandoned his open attacks and turned to secret treachery. He sent messengers to Jerusalem to accuse Josephus of becoming too powerful. They warned that Josephus would soon march to Jerusalem as a tyrant unless the people stopped him.

The people understood that this accusation was false and paid no attention to it. Some of the leading men, however, were jealous of Josephus. Several rulers also secretly sent money to John so he could hire soldiers and fight against Josephus.

These men issued their own decree recalling Josephus from his government. They didn't consider the decree sufficient, so they also sent two thousand five hundred armed men and four men of the highest rank.

Those four men were Joazar, the son of Nomicus; Ananias, the son of Sadduk; and Simon and Judas, the sons of Jonathan. All four were skilled speakers. Their task was to turn the people against Josephus.

If Josephus willingly gave up his office, they were to allow him to return to Jerusalem and explain his conduct. If he refused to leave, they were to treat him as an enemy.

Josephus's friends told him that an army was coming against him, but they didn't know the reason for its arrival. That reason was known only to a few people involved in the secret councils of his enemies.

Because of this, four cities revolted against Josephus at once: Sepphoris, Gamala, Gischala, and Tiberias.

Josephus recovered all four cities without a war. Through several clever plans, he defeated the four commanders and captured the most powerful of their soldiers. He sent the prisoners to Jerusalem.

The people of Galilee were furious with the commanders. They were ready to kill not only the soldiers but also the men who had sent them. The soldiers escaped before the Galileans could carry out their plan.

John remained inside Gischala because he was afraid of Josephus. Within a few days, however, Tiberias revolted again. The people of the city invited King Agrippa to return and resume his authority over them.

Agrippa didn't arrive at the appointed time. A small group of Roman cavalry appeared instead, and the people of Tiberias drove Josephus out of the city.

The news of the revolt quickly reached Taricheae. Josephus had sent all his soldiers away to gather grain, so he didn't know whether he should march alone against the rebels or remain where he was.

He feared that the king's soldiers might arrive while he waited and enter the city. He also couldn't act the next day because it was the Sabbath, which would prevent him from carrying out his plans.

Josephus therefore devised another scheme.

First, he ordered the gates of Taricheae closed so that no one could leave and tell the people of Tiberias what he intended to do. He then gathered every ship on the lake. There were two hundred thirty ships.

He placed no more than four sailors in each one. Then he sailed quickly toward Tiberias, keeping the ships far enough from the city that the people could barely see them.

Josephus ordered the empty ships to drift near the city. He himself came close enough to be seen with only seven guards, none of whom was armed.

When Josephus's enemies saw him from the walls, they were astonished. They assumed that all the ships were filled with armed soldiers. They threw down their weapons and signaled that they wanted peace. They begged Josephus to spare the city.

Josephus threatened them harshly. He reproached them for taking up arms against the Romans while wasting their strength on civil quarrels, exactly as their enemies wanted.

He also condemned them for trying to seize the man who had been protecting their safety. They had even shut the gates of their city against the man who had built its walls.

Still, Josephus said he would accept any representatives they sent to offer an excuse. He would make whatever agreement was necessary to protect the city.

Ten of the most powerful men of Tiberias immediately came down to him. Josephus took them aboard one of his ships and ordered the crew to carry them far from the city.

He then commanded that fifty more men from the senate, all prominent citizens, come to him and offer security on behalf of the city.

After that, he called out more men one at a time, each time using a different excuse. He claimed that he needed them to help establish the agreement between the city and himself.

Once the ships were filled with these men, Josephus ordered their captains to sail immediately to Taricheae and place the prisoners in confinement.

In the end, he captured the entire senate, which numbered six hundred men, along with about two thousand people from the city. He carried all of them away to Taricheae.

The remaining people of Tiberias cried out that a man named Clitus had been the main author of the revolt. They asked Josephus to punish Clitus alone.

Josephus didn't want to kill anyone. He ordered one of his guards, a man named Levius, to leave the ship and cut off both of Clitus's hands.

Levius was afraid to approach such a large crowd of enemies by himself, so he refused to go.

Clitus saw that Josephus was furious and seemed ready to leap from the ship and punish him personally. Clitus begged Josephus from the shore to leave him one hand.

Josephus agreed, on the condition that Clitus cut off his own other hand.

Clitus drew his sword and used his right hand to cut off his left. His fear of Josephus was so great that he did this to avoid facing him directly.

Josephus took the people of Tiberias prisoner and regained control of the city with nothing more than empty ships and seven guards.

A few days later, he also retook Gischala, which had revolted along with the people of Sepphoris. Josephus allowed his soldiers to plunder the city.

Afterward, he gathered all the goods that had been taken and returned them to the people of Gischala. He did the same for the people of Sepphoris and Tiberias.

Once he had subdued the cities, Josephus allowed them to be plundered so their people would learn a lesson. But by returning their property, he also regained their goodwill.

CHAPTER 22

The Jews Prepare for War, and Simon, the Son of Gioras, Begins Plundering

The troubles in Galilee finally came to an end when the people stopped fighting among themselves and began preparing for war against the Romans. In Jerusalem, the high priest Artanus and the other powerful men who opposed the Roman cause repaired the city walls and made many weapons. Throughout the city, spears, darts, and every kind of armor were being forged.

The young men trained wherever they could, though they had no proper order or discipline, and the whole city was filled with confusion and unrest. The more reasonable citizens were full of sorrow. Seeing the disasters that were about to fall upon them, many openly mourned.

There were also signs that peaceful people believed were warnings of the evils to come. Those who were eager for war, however, explained these signs in whatever way supported their own desires. Even before the Romans marched against Jerusalem, the city already looked like a place marked for destruction.

Ananus wanted to put the preparations for war aside for a time. He tried to persuade the rebels to consider their own safety and to restrain the madness of those called zealots. But their violence was stronger than his efforts. We will relate later what became of Ananus.

In the Acrabbene toparchy, Simon, the son of Gioras, gathered a large number of men who desired change and began ravaging the countryside. He didn't limit his attacks to the homes of wealthy men. He also tortured their bodies and openly showed that he wanted to rule as a tyrant.

Artanus and the other rulers sent an army against him, but Simon and his followers withdrew to Masada, where they joined the robbers living there. Together, they plundered the land of Idumea. They continued doing this until Ananus and the other men who opposed them had been killed.

The rulers of Idumea suffered greatly from the number of people slain and from the continual destruction of their property. At last, they raised an army and placed guards in the villages to protect them from further attacks.

Such was the condition of Judea at that time.