The Jewish War – Book 7

BOOK VII

Containing the Period of About Three Years

From Titus's Capture of Jerusalem to the Revolt at Cyrene

CHAPTER 1

How Jerusalem Was Completely Destroyed Except for Three Towers; How Titus Praised His Soldiers in a Speech, Rewarded Them, and Sent Many of Them Away

1. Once the army had no one left to kill or plunder, because no one remained for them to attack, Caesar ordered them to destroy the entire city and the temple. He commanded them to leave only the tallest and strongest towers standing, namely Phasaelus, Hippicus, and Mariamne, along with the section of the western wall that surrounded the city.

The wall was spared so it could provide a camp for the soldiers who would remain there as a garrison. The towers were also left standing so future generations could see what kind of city Jerusalem had been and how strongly it had been fortified, before Roman courage brought it under control. Every other part of the wall was torn down to its foundations. Those who came afterward found nothing that could make them believe the place had ever been inhabited.

This was the end that came upon Jerusalem because of the madness of those who desired revolution. It had once been a city of great magnificence and had been famous throughout the world.

2. Caesar decided to leave the tenth legion there as a guard, along with certain troops of cavalry and companies of infantry. After the war had been completely brought to an end, he wanted to praise the entire army for the great deeds it had performed and to give suitable rewards to those who had distinguished themselves.

He ordered a large platform to be built in the middle of the place where he had previously made his camp. Then he stood upon it with his chief commanders around him and spoke loudly enough for the entire army to hear.

He thanked them for the goodwill they had shown him. He praised their willing obedience throughout the war, an obedience they had proven by facing so many dangers with courage. He also praised their bravery, through which they had increased the power of their country and shown everyone that neither the number of their enemies, nor the strength of their fortifications, nor the size of their cities, nor the reckless courage and savage fury of their opponents could ever escape Roman valor, even when fortune seemed to favor the enemy in many ways.

He said it was reasonable for them to bring the war to an end after it had lasted so long. When they first entered the conflict, they could have wished for nothing greater than the victory they had now gained. Their success was even more favorable and glorious because the Romans had willingly accepted as governors and administrators the men Titus had chosen and sent into their own country for that purpose. Those lands remained under the rule of the appointed governors, and the people were grateful that such men had been selected for them.

Titus said that he admired and cared for every soldier because he knew each man had carried out his duty as well as his ability and opportunity allowed. Still, he declared that he would immediately grant rewards and honors to those who had fought with the greatest courage and strength, who had shown the finest judgment, and who had made the army more famous through their noble deeds.

No one who had worked harder than another, he said, would fail to receive a fair reward. He had taken great care over this matter because he preferred to honor the virtues of his fellow soldiers rather than punish those who had done wrong.

3. After this, Titus ordered the men responsible for reading the records to announce the names of all who had performed great deeds during the war. He called each man forward, praised him before the army, and rejoiced in his accomplishments as though they had been his own.

He placed golden crowns on their heads, hung gold ornaments around their necks, and gave them long golden spears and silver standards. He also promoted each of them to a higher rank. In addition to these honors, he distributed large amounts of silver, gold, and clothing taken from the spoils and other captured goods.

When every soldier had received the honor Titus had assigned to him, and after he had wished happiness upon the whole army, he came down from the platform amid loud praise. He then offered thank-offerings [to the gods] and sacrificed a great number of oxen that had been prepared at the altars. The animals were distributed among the soldiers for a feast.

Titus remained for three days with his chief commanders and feasted with them during that time. Afterward, he sent the rest of the army away to the places where each group would be best stationed. He allowed the tenth legion to remain at Jerusalem as a guard, and he did not send it beyond the Euphrates, where it had been stationed before.

Since he remembered that the twelfth legion had retreated before the Jews under its commander, Cestius, he removed it from all of Syria. The legion had previously been stationed at Raphanea, but Titus sent it to a place called Meletine, near the Euphrates, on the borders of Armenia and Cappadocia.

He also decided that two legions should remain with him until he reached Egypt. Titus then marched with his army down to Caesarea, the city beside the sea. There he stored the great quantity of spoils he had taken and ordered that the captives be kept there. The winter season prevented him from sailing to Italy at that time.

CHAPTER 2

How Titus Presented Every Kind of Show at Caesarea Philippi, and How Simon the Tyrant Was Captured and Kept for the Triumph

1. At the same time that Titus Caesar was besieging Jerusalem, Vespasian boarded a merchant ship and sailed from Alexandria to Rhodes. From there, he continued in ships with three rows of oars. At every city along the way, the people welcomed him with joy. He crossed from Ionia into Greece, then sailed from Corcyra to the promontory of Iapyx, where he began his journey by land.

Titus, meanwhile, marched from the Caesarea on the coast to the city called Caesarea Philippi. He stayed there for a long time and presented every kind of show. Many of the captives were killed there. Some were thrown to wild beasts, while others were forced by the thousands to fight and kill one another as if they were enemies.

While Titus was there, he learned that Simon, the son of Gioras, had been captured. This happened in the following way.

During the siege of Jerusalem, Simon was in the upper city. After the Roman army entered the walls and began destroying the city, he gathered his most trusted friends. Among them were several stonecutters, who brought the iron tools of their trade. They also took as much food as they could carry, enough to last for a long time. Then Simon and his companions lowered themselves into an underground cavern that could not be seen from above.

They followed the passages that had already been dug, and at first they moved forward without trouble. When they reached solid earth, they began digging a tunnel beneath the ground. Simon hoped they could continue until they came up in a safe place and escape. But when they tried to carry out this plan, they were disappointed. The miners could make only slow progress, and even that was difficult. Their food began to run out, although they had been carefully rationing it.

Simon then thought he might frighten and deceive the Romans. He put on a white tunic, fastened a purple cloak around himself, and came up from the ground at the place where the temple had once stood. At first, those who saw him were shocked and stood still. Then they came closer and asked who he was.

Simon refused to answer. Instead, he told them to call their commander. When they went to get him, Terentius Rufus, who had been left in command of the army there, came to Simon. Simon told him the whole truth. Rufus took him into custody and reported to Caesar that he had been captured.

In this way, God brought Simon to punishment for the bitter and savage tyranny he had inflicted on his own people. His worst enemies captured him, but they didn't have to overpower him. He gave himself up willingly, so he could be punished for the same reason that he had falsely accused many Jews of planning to desert to the Romans and had cruelly put them to death.

Wicked acts do not escape God's anger. Justice is not too weak to punish those who do wrong. In time, it catches up with those who break its laws and punishes the wicked, often with greater severity because they expected to escape by avoiding immediate punishment. Simon learned this when he fell into the hands of the Romans.

Simon's appearance from the ground also led to the discovery of many other rebels who had hidden underground. As for Simon, he was taken in chains to Caesar after Caesar returned to the Caesarea on the coast. Caesar ordered that Simon be kept in custody for the triumph he planned to celebrate in Rome.

CHAPTER 3

How Titus Killed Many Jews During the Celebrations of His Brother's and Father's Birthdays, and How the Jews at Antioch Were Put in Danger Because of the Crimes and Impiety of Antiochus, a Jew

1

While Titus was staying at Caesarea, he celebrated the birthday of his brother Domitian with great ceremony. To honor him, Titus carried out many of the punishments that had been planned for the Jews. More than 2,500 of them were killed in battles with wild beasts, burned alive, or forced to fight one another. Yet the Romans thought these deaths were still less than the Jews deserved, even though they were destroyed in so many different ways.

After this, Caesar went to Berytus, a city in Phoenicia that was also a Roman colony. He remained there for some time and held an even more magnificent celebration for his father's birthday. The shows were more costly, and he spent great sums on the displays and entertainments. Many captives were killed there in the same ways as before.

2

Around this same time, the Jews who remained in Antioch were accused of crimes and faced the danger of being killed. The people of Antioch had stirred up trouble against them because of the rumors then spreading about the Jews, as well as because of certain actions the Jews had taken not long before. I must describe these events, though briefly, so that the later parts of this history may be properly connected with what happened earlier.

3

The Jewish people lived throughout the inhabited world among the other nations. Because Syria was close to Judea, many Jews lived there, and the largest number in that region was found at Antioch. The city was large, and the kings who ruled after Antiochus had allowed the Jews to live there in peace.

Antiochus, who was called Epiphanes, had destroyed Jerusalem and plundered the Temple. His successors, however, returned the bronze gifts that had been given to the Jews of Antioch. They dedicated those gifts to the Jewish synagogue and allowed the Jews to enjoy the same rights as the Greek citizens. The kings who came after them treated the Jews in the same way. As a result, the Jewish population grew large, and their synagogue was richly decorated with the gifts they had received.

Many Greeks also became converts to Judaism. In this way, they became part of the Jewish community.

When the present war began and Vespasian had just sailed to Syria, hatred against the Jews spread everywhere. At that time, a man named Antiochus came into the theater while the people of Antioch were gathered there. He was a Jew and was highly respected because his father had been the governor of the Jews in Antioch.

Antiochus accused his own father and several other Jews of planning to burn the entire city in a single night. He also handed over some foreign Jews, claiming that they were part of the same plot. When the people heard this, they lost control of their anger. They ordered that the accused men be brought fire and burned. The men were taken into the theater and burned at once.

The people then attacked the large Jewish population, believing that a sudden punishment would save their city. Antiochus made their anger even worse. To prove that he had rejected Jewish customs and now hated them, he offered sacrifices according to the Greek practice. He also urged the people to force the other Jews to do the same. He claimed that this would reveal who had taken part in the plot, since the guilty men would refuse.

When the people of Antioch carried out this test, a few Jews agreed to sacrifice. Those who refused were killed.

Antiochus then received soldiers from the Roman commander and became a harsh master over his own people. He wouldn't allow the Jews to rest on the seventh day. Instead, he forced them to work as they did on every other day. He caused such suffering that the Sabbath rest was suspended not only at Antioch, but for a short time in other cities as well.

4

After these disasters had fallen upon the Jews at Antioch, another calamity came upon them. I mentioned the earlier events because they led directly to what happened next.

The four-sided marketplace was burned, along with the archives, the public record office, and the royal palaces. The fire was difficult to stop, and because it spread with such force, it threatened to consume the entire city.

Antiochus accused the Jews of causing all the destruction. The people were already confused and frightened by the disorder around them, so they believed his accusation. They would probably have believed it even without their former hatred of the Jews. When they remembered what had happened before, they became convinced that the Jews were responsible.

They attacked the accused Jews with great violence, behaving like madmen. It was as if they had seen the Jews themselves setting fire to the city.

Cneius Collegas, the Roman legate, had great difficulty persuading the people to let the matter be reported to Caesar. Cesennius Petus, the governor of Syria, had already been sent away by Vespasian and had not yet returned.

Collegas carefully investigated the affair and discovered the truth. None of the Jews accused by Antiochus had taken part in the fire. The real offenders were several wicked men who were heavily in debt. They believed that if they burned the marketplace and destroyed the public records, no one would be able to demand payment from them.

The Jews were left in great fear and confusion, uncertain about what would happen because of these accusations.

CHAPTER 4

How Vespasian Was Welcomed in Rome; How the Germans Rebelled Against the Romans and Were Defeated; and How the Sarmatians Invaded Mysia but Were Forced to Return to Their Own Land

1

When Titus Caesar heard that his father was greatly desired throughout Italy, and that Rome in particular was preparing to receive him with great joy and honor, he gave himself over to celebration and pleasure. He was now free from the anxiety that had troubled him, and he enjoyed the news in the happiest way.

The people of Italy honored Vespasian in their hearts before he even arrived. Their expectation of seeing him was almost the same as his actual presence, because they were eager to meet him and their goodwill was sincere and freely given. The senators especially wished for his arrival. They remembered the disasters that had followed the recent changes of rulers, and they hoped to receive a governor who possessed the dignity of old age and the greatest skill in war. They knew that he had not been raised to power for his own advantage, but to protect those placed under his authority.

The people had suffered so much from civil conflict that they were even more eager for Vespasian to come without delay. They believed his arrival would free them from their troubles and restore peace, safety, and prosperity. The soldiers also held him in high regard because they knew of his victories and experience in war. They had already seen the weakness and cowardice of other commanders, and they wanted to escape the disgrace those leaders had brought upon them. They hoped to serve a ruler who would protect them and bring honor to the army.

Since this goodwill toward Vespasian was shared by everyone, the men who held important offices could not wait for him in Rome. They hurried far from the city to meet him. The rest of the people were just as unwilling to delay their first sight of him. Crowds poured out of Rome, believing it was better and more fitting to go out and welcome him than to remain inside the city. This was the first time Rome seemed happy to find itself almost empty of citizens, since more people had gone out than stayed behind.

When word arrived that Vespasian was near, those who had met him first told the people how kindly he had received everyone who approached him. Then the whole crowd that remained in Rome, along with their wives and children, went out onto the road to wait for him. As he passed, they greeted him with every kind of cheer. They rejoiced at seeing him, praised the pleasantness of his face, and called him their Benefactor and Savior. They declared that he alone was worthy to rule Rome.

The city soon looked like a temple filled with garlands and sweet-smelling offerings. It was difficult for Vespasian to reach the royal palace because the people surrounded him on every side. At last, he entered and offered sacrifices of thanksgiving to his household gods for bringing him safely back to Rome.

The people then turned to feasting. The tribes, families, and neighborhoods held meals and poured out offerings, while praying that God would allow Vespasian, his sons, and all their descendants to rule the Roman government for many years. They also prayed that his power would remain safe from every enemy. This was how Rome welcomed Vespasian, and from that time the city quickly entered a period of great prosperity.

2

Before this happened, while Vespasian was staying near Alexandria and Titus was still directing the siege of Jerusalem, a large number of Germans began preparing for rebellion. The Gauls who lived near them joined their cause, and together they formed a plan to throw off Roman rule. They believed they had a strong chance of success and hoped to free themselves from Roman control.

The Germans were driven to this attempt for several reasons. First, they were a people who often acted without careful judgment and were willing to rush into danger on the smallest hope. They also hated their Roman governors. Their nation had never willingly accepted the rule of any foreign power, and they had submitted to Rome only because they had been forced to do so.

The present situation encouraged them even more. They saw that the Roman government was suffering from constant disorder because its rulers kept changing. They also heard that every part of the Roman world was unsettled and uncertain. They thought no better opportunity could arise for rebellion than a time when the Roman state was in such confusion.

Classicus and Vitellius, two of their commanders, filled them with even greater hope. They had long wanted such a change and now believed the moment had come to declare their intentions openly. The people were already prepared to act, and when these leaders told them what they planned to do, the news was welcomed.

A large part of the Germans agreed to rebel, while the rest were no more loyal to Rome. At this time, as though guided by divine providence, Vespasian sent letters to Petilius Cerealis, who had once commanded the forces in Germany. In these letters, he granted Cerealis the rank of consul and ordered him to take command of Britain.

Cerealis went where he was ordered. When he learned that the Germans had rebelled, he attacked them as soon as they gathered. He arranged his army for battle, killed many of them, and forced the rest to abandon their foolish plans and return to better judgment. Even if he had not attacked them so quickly, they would soon have been punished. As soon as news of the rebellion reached Rome and Caesar Domitian heard what had happened, he acted without delay, even though he was still very young.

Domitian had inherited his father's courage and had gained more experience than anyone would expect from a man of his age. He immediately marched against the barbarians. When the Germans heard that he was approaching, their courage failed. They surrendered to him in fear and considered it fortunate that they had been brought back under their former rule without suffering greater damage.

Domitian then put the affairs of Gaul in such good order that they could not easily be disturbed again. He returned to Rome with honor and glory, having accomplished deeds greater than could normally be expected from his age, yet worthy of the son of so great a father.

3

At the same time as the German rebellion, the Scythians made a bold attack against the Romans. These Scythians, who were called Sarmatians, were a very large people. Without being detected, they crossed the Danube and entered Mysia. Then, in a sudden and unexpected assault, they killed many of the Roman soldiers who guarded the frontier.

Fonteius Agrippa, the consular legate, came to meet them and fought bravely against them, but they killed him. Afterward, they swept through the entire region under his command, destroying everything in their path.

When Vespasian heard what had happened and learned that Mysia had been laid waste, he sent Rubrius Gallus to punish the Sarmatians. Gallus fought several battles against them and killed many of their number. Those who survived fled in fear back to their own country.

After ending the war, Gallus also took steps to protect the region in the future. He stationed larger and larger garrisons along the frontier until the barbarians could no longer cross the river. In this way, the war in Mysia came to a sudden end.

CHAPTER 5

Concerning the Sabbatic River Titus Saw While Traveling Through Syria; How the People of Antioch Petitioned Titus Against the Jews and Were Refused; and the Triumph of Titus and Vespasian

1

Titus Caesar remained at Berytus for some time, as we have already said. From there he continued on his way, holding magnificent games in every Syrian city he passed through. He displayed the captive Jews in public as proof of the destruction that had overtaken their nation.

As he traveled, Titus saw a river that deserves a place in history. It flows between Arcea, which belonged to Agrippa's kingdom, and Raphanea. This river has a strange pattern. For six days it runs with a strong current and plenty of water. Then its springs suddenly dry up, and its channel remains empty. On the seventh day, it flows again as it did before, as though nothing had changed. It has followed this order continually and without variation. For that reason, it is called the Sabbatic River , a name taken from the sacred seventh day observed by the Jews.

2

When the people of Antioch learned that Titus was approaching, they were so pleased that they could not remain inside the city. They hurried out to meet him, traveling more than thirty furlongs. A great crowd went out, including women and children. When they saw Titus coming, they lined both sides of the road, stretched out their right hands in greeting, shouted praises, and returned with him to the city.

As they went, they repeatedly begged Titus to drive the Jews out of Antioch. Titus refused to grant their request, though he listened to them without anger. The Jews, however, were terrified because they didn't know what Titus thought of them or what he might decide to do.

Titus did not remain in Antioch. He continued at once to Zeugma, which stood on the Euphrates. There, messengers from Vologeses, king of Parthia, met him and presented him with a gold crown in honor of his victory over the Jews. Titus accepted the crown, entertained the king's messengers at a feast, and then returned to Antioch.

The senate and people of Antioch strongly urged Titus to appear in their theater, where the entire population had gathered to await him. He agreed with great kindness. But when they again pressed him to expel the Jews from the city, he gave them this answer:

"How can that be done? The country to which the Jews would have to flee has been destroyed, and no other place will receive them."

When their first request failed, the people of Antioch made another. They asked Titus to remove the bronze tablets on which the privileges granted to the Jews had been engraved. Titus refused this request as well. He allowed the Jews of Antioch to keep the same rights they had enjoyed before. After that, he left for Egypt.

During his journey, Titus passed through Jerusalem. When he compared the city's present misery with its former greatness, and saw the extent of its ruins beside the splendor it had once possessed, he felt pity for its destruction. He was far from boasting that he had conquered such a large and beautiful city by force. In fact, he often cursed those who had begun the revolt and brought such punishment upon Jerusalem. It was clear that he didn't want the city's ruin to be taken as proof of his courage.

A considerable amount of wealth was still found among the ruins. The Romans dug up much of it, but the captives discovered most of the treasure and carried it away. It included gold, silver, and other valuable objects that the Jews had hidden underground to protect them from the uncertain fortunes of war.

3

Titus then continued on the journey he had planned through Egypt. He crossed the desert quickly, reached Alexandria, and decided to sail to Rome. Since two legions had accompanied him, he sent them back to the places from which they had come. The Fifth Legion was sent to Mysia, and the Fifteenth to Pannonia.

As for the leaders of the captives, Simon and John, along with seven hundred other men chosen for their height and physical appearance, Titus ordered that they be taken to Italy without delay. He planned to display them in his triumph.

Titus had a successful voyage. When he reached Rome, the city welcomed him just as it had welcomed his father. The most impressive sight to Titus was the meeting between him and Vespasian. The citizens, however, were filled with the greatest joy when they saw all three together, as they were at that time.

Only a few days passed before they decided to hold one shared triumph in honor of the victories they had won. The Senate had already granted each of them a separate triumph, but they chose to celebrate together.

The day of the great ceremony was announced in advance. On that morning, nearly the entire population left the city. Everyone sought a place from which to watch, leaving only enough room for the procession to pass.

4

The soldiers marched out first, arranged by companies and ranks under their separate commanders. They went during the night and gathered near the gates by the Temple of Isis, not at the upper palace gates. The emperors had spent the previous night there.

At daybreak, Vespasian and Titus came out wearing laurel crowns and the ancient purple garments reserved for their family. They went as far as Octavian's Walks, where the Senate, the chief officials, and those listed among the equestrian order were waiting for them.

A platform had been raised in front of the colonnades, and ivory chairs had been placed upon it. Vespasian and Titus came forward and sat down. The soldiers immediately shouted their praise and called attention to the emperors' courage. They themselves were unarmed, dressed in silk, and crowned with laurel.

Vespasian accepted the soldiers' cheers. When they continued shouting, he signaled for silence. As soon as everyone became quiet, he rose, covered most of his head with his cloak, and offered the prayers customary on such occasions. Titus offered the same prayers.

Vespasian then gave a short speech to the people and sent the soldiers away to a meal prepared for them by the emperors. Afterward, he went to the gate called the Gate of the Pomp, because all magnificent processions passed through it. There they ate some food, put on their triumphal garments, and offered sacrifices to the gods whose images stood at the gate. Then the procession began. It passed through the theaters so the crowds could see it more easily.

5

It's impossible to describe the number and magnificence of the displays in a way that does them justice. No one could easily imagine such a procession being produced by human labor, such an amount of wealth, or such a collection of rare things. Almost every treasure that fortunate people had gathered separately over many years had been brought together for this one day.

The procession showed the vast power of Rome. There were enormous quantities of silver, gold, and ivory, fashioned into every kind of object. These treasures weren't merely carried through the streets. They seemed to flow along like a river.

Some displays were covered with the finest purple cloth. Others showed scenes embroidered by Babylonian craftsmen with such accuracy that they appeared alive. Precious stones, clear and shining, were set in gold crowns and other ornaments. So many were carried in the procession that anyone watching could see how mistaken people were to think of such stones as rare.

Images of the gods were also carried. They were remarkable for their size and for the skill used to make them. Each was made from costly materials. Many kinds of animals were brought as well, each wearing its natural ornaments.

The men who carried these displays were present in great numbers. They wore purple garments woven throughout with gold. Those chosen to bear the most splendid objects wore ornaments so magnificent that they drew everyone's attention.

Even the large number of captives was richly dressed. The variety and fine workmanship of their clothing hid the ugliness of their condition. The greatest wonder, however, was the size of the pageants carried through the streets. Anyone who saw them might fear that the bearers couldn't support them, since some had three or even four levels rising one above another.

The construction of these displays brought both pleasure and amazement. Many were covered with gold carpets, and gold and ivory were fixed all around them. They showed scenes from the war in many different forms, each one presenting the events with great skill.

One scene showed a prosperous country laid waste. Entire groups of enemies had been killed, while others fled or were led away as captives. High and massive walls had been thrown down by siege machines. Strong fortifications had been captured, and the walls of crowded cities on hilltops had been taken. Armies poured through the breaches, while every place was filled with slaughter.

Other scenes showed enemies begging for mercy after they could no longer raise their hands in resistance. Temples were shown burning, houses collapsing upon their owners, and fire spreading through the cities. Rivers flowed out of a broad and gloomy desert, not through cultivated land and not to provide drink for people or animals, but through a country burning on every side. The Jews said that they had suffered such things during the war.

The workmanship was so skillful and the scenes were so lifelike that people who hadn't witnessed the war could see what had happened as if they had been present. At the top of each pageant stood the commander of the captured city, along with an image showing how he had been taken.

Many ships followed the pageants. The rest of the spoils were carried in great abundance. But the objects taken from the Temple in Jerusalem attracted the most attention. Among them was the golden table, which weighed many talents. There was also the golden menorah, though its design had been changed from the one used in the Temple.

Its central shaft stood on a base, and its smaller branches extended a great distance from it. The branches were arranged like a trident, and each ended in a bronze socket for a lamp. There were seven lamps in all, showing the honor the Jews gave to the number seven.

Last of the Temple spoils came the Law of the Jews. After these objects had passed, many men carried images of Victory, made entirely of ivory or gold.

Vespasian led the procession, followed by Titus. Domitian rode with them and made a splendid appearance on a remarkable horse.

6

The procession ended at the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. When Vespasian and Titus arrived, they stopped, since it was the ancient Roman custom to wait there until word came that the enemy's general had been killed.

That general was Simon, son of Gioras, who had been led through the procession among the captives. A rope had been placed around his neck, and he had been dragged to the proper place in the Forum, where those leading him tortured him along the way. Roman law required that criminals condemned to death be killed there.

When the people were told that Simon was dead, they raised a joyful shout. The emperors then began the sacrifices promised in the prayers used for such ceremonies. After the sacrifices were complete, they returned to the palace.

The emperors invited some of the spectators to a feast. The rest of the people received generous supplies for meals in their own homes. Rome treated the day as a public festival, celebrating the army's victory over its enemies, the end of the city's civil troubles, and the hope of future prosperity and happiness.

7

After the triumphs were over and Roman affairs had been secured, Vespasian decided to build a temple to Peace. It was completed in a short time and with a level of splendor that went beyond anything people had expected.

Providence had given Vespasian great wealth, in addition to what he had gained during his earlier victories. He used that wealth to adorn the temple with paintings and statues. It became a place where the rare objects people once traveled throughout the inhabited world to see were gathered together.

Vespasian also placed there the golden vessels and instruments taken from the Jewish Temple, as signs of his victory. He ordered, however, that the Law of the Jews and the purple curtains from the holy place be stored in the imperial palace itself and kept there.

CHAPTER 6

Concerning Macherus, How Lucilius Bassus Captured the Citadel, and What Happened in Other Places

1

Lucilius Bassus was sent to Judea as legate. There he received the army from Cerealis Vitellianus and captured the citadel at Herodium, along with its garrison. He then gathered all the soldiers in the area, who were numerous but scattered in several groups, and joined them with the Tenth Legion. After this, he decided to attack Macherus.

It was necessary to destroy the citadel, since its great strength might encourage many people to join another rebellion. Its position gave those who held it strong hopes of safety, while filling any attacker with fear and forcing him to spend a long time in the siege.

The citadel stood on a high, rocky hill. Its height alone made it difficult to conquer. Nature had also made the hill almost impossible to reach. Deep valleys surrounded it on every side. They were so deep that a person standing above could not see their bottoms, and they were too difficult to cross or fill with earth.

The valley on the western side stretched for sixty furlongs and continued all the way to Lake Asphaltitis. On this side, Macherus rose to its greatest height. The valleys to the north and south were not as wide, but they were just as difficult to cross. The valley on the eastern side was one hundred cubits deep. It reached as far as the mountain opposite Macherus, which marked its boundary.

2

Alexander Janneus, king of the Jews, was the first to recognize the strength of this location and build a citadel there. Gabinius later destroyed it during his war against Aristobulus.

When Herod became king, he considered the place worthy of the greatest attention. He believed it should be fortified as strongly as possible, especially because it stood near Arabia and had a clear view toward that country. He enclosed a large area with walls and towers and built a city there. From the city, a road led up to the citadel at the top of the mountain.

Herod also built a wall around the summit and placed towers at its corners. Each tower was one hundred sixty cubits high. In the center, he built a magnificent palace filled with large and beautiful rooms. He made many reservoirs to collect water, placing them wherever they would be most useful, so that the people inside would have enough water for every need.

In this way, Herod challenged the natural strength of the place. The mountain was already difficult to capture, but he added fortifications that made it even safer. He also stored large numbers of spears, weapons, and other engines of war inside the citadel. Everything that could help the inhabitants withstand a long siege was brought there.

3

A kind of rue grew inside the citadel that was astonishing because of its size. It was as tall and thick as any fig tree. People said it had survived from the time of Herod and might have lived much longer if the Jews who later occupied the place had not cut it down.

In the valley north of the city stood a place called Baaras. A root with the same name grew there. Its color was like flame, and in the evening it gave off a ray that looked like lightning.

The root was difficult to remove. When people tried to seize it, it pulled away from their hands. It would not allow itself to be taken until a woman's urine or menstrual blood had been poured over it. Even then, anyone who touched it would die unless he hung the root from his hand and carried it away that way.

There was also another method that was said to be safer. A person could dig a trench around the root until only a small part of it remained hidden in the ground. He would then tie a dog to the root. When the dog tried to follow the person who had tied it there, the root could be pulled up easily. The dog would die at once, as though it had taken the place of the person who wanted the plant. After that, anyone could pick up the root without fear.

For all the trouble required to obtain it, the root was valued for only one power. When it was brought to a sick person, it was said to drive away demons. These were believed to be the spirits of wicked people. According to the people there, such spirits entered the living and killed them unless help could be found.

The area also had springs of hot water, and the springs did not all taste the same. Some were bitter, while others were sweet. There were also many springs of cold water, not only in the lower places where the fountains stood close together, but in other places as well.

A cave stood nearby. It was not very deep, and a large rock covered its opening. Above the rock rose two hills, shaped somewhat like breasts and separated by a short distance. One hill sent out a very cold spring, while the other produced a very hot one. When the two waters were mixed, they made a pleasant bath. The water was said to help with several illnesses and was especially useful for strengthening the nerves.

The area also contained mines of sulfur and alum.

4

After Bassus examined the place, he decided to besiege it by filling the valley on the eastern side. He immediately set his men to work and ordered them to build their embankments as quickly as possible. Once the valley was filled, the siege would become much easier.

The Jews inside Macherus separated themselves from the foreigners who were with them. They forced those foreigners, whom they considered useless in battle, to remain in the lower city and face the greatest danger. The Jews took possession of the upper citadel, both because it was stronger and because it offered them better protection. They also believed they might receive mercy if they eventually surrendered.

Before giving up, they wanted to see whether they could avoid the siege. Each day they made an attack against the Romans. Many Jews were killed in these clashes, but they also killed many Romans.

Victory usually went to whichever side found the better opportunity. The Jews gained the advantage when they attacked the Romans by surprise. The Romans gained it when the Jews came out against the embankments and the soldiers were ready for them.

The outcome of the siege, however, was not decided by these daily battles. A surprising event forced the Jews to surrender the citadel.

Among the besieged was a bold and very active young man named Eleazar. He had distinguished himself during the attacks and encouraged the Jews to come out in large numbers to stop the Romans from building their embankments. Whenever fighting began, he caused the Romans great harm.

Eleazar arranged matters so that the men who went out could attack easily and return safely. He always stayed behind them to protect their retreat.

One day, after the fighting had ended and both sides had withdrawn to their own camps, Eleazar remained outside the gates. He believed the Romans would not begin another attack so soon. He stood near the walls, speaking with the men who were stationed there, and paid no attention to anything else.

A Roman soldier named Rufus, an Egyptian by birth, suddenly rushed at him when no one expected an attack. Rufus seized Eleazar and carried him away, taking his armor as well. The men watching from the wall were so shocked that they could not help him. Rufus brought Eleazar to the Roman camp.

The Roman general ordered that Eleazar be stripped, placed where the people inside the city could see him, and beaten severely before their eyes.

The Jews were overwhelmed by this misfortune. Everyone in the city mourned for the young man, and the grief was greater than anyone would expect over the suffering of one person.

When Bassus saw their reaction, he decided to use a plan against them. He wanted to increase their sorrow and persuade them to surrender the city in order to save Eleazar.

He ordered his men to set up a cross, as if Eleazar were about to be hanged immediately. When the people in the citadel saw this, they were filled with grief. They groaned loudly and cried out that they could not bear to watch him die.

Eleazar begged them not to abandon him while he was about to suffer such a terrible death. He urged them to save themselves by surrendering to Roman power and fortune, since the Romans had already conquered every other people.

His words moved them greatly. Many others inside the city also pleaded for him because he came from a large and respected family. Their compassion overcame their usual determination.

They immediately sent messengers to negotiate with the Romans. They offered to surrender the citadel if they were allowed to leave and take Eleazar with them.

The Romans and their general accepted these terms.

The foreigners living in the lower part of the city heard that the Jews had made an agreement for themselves alone. They decided to escape secretly during the night. But as soon as they opened their gates, the Jews who had negotiated with Bassus informed him of what was happening.

It is unclear whether they betrayed the foreigners because they wanted to prevent them from escaping or because they feared the Romans might punish them for it.

The bravest of the foreigners escaped before the Romans could stop them. Those who were caught inside the city were left behind.

5

After Bassus had settled the matter at Macherus, he hurried to the forest called Jarden. He had heard that many people who had fled from Jerusalem and Macherus had gathered there.

When he arrived and learned that the report was true, he first surrounded the entire area with cavalry. Because of the terrain and the position of the horsemen, the Jews would have no way to break through and escape.

Bassus ordered the infantry to cut down the trees in the forest where the Jews had taken refuge.

The Jews now had to attempt some great action and expose themselves to the danger of battle, since fighting was their only possible way to escape. They attacked the Romans together with a loud cry. The Romans met them with equal courage.

The battle continued for a long time because the Jews fought desperately and the Romans refused to give way. But the result was not what the attackers hoped for. Only twelve Romans were killed, along with a few wounded. Not one of the Jews escaped.

All of them were killed, numbering no fewer than three thousand. Their commander was Judas, the son of Jairus, whom we have mentioned before. He had once commanded a band of soldiers during the siege of Jerusalem and had escaped by going down into an underground passage.

6

Around this same time, Caesar sent a letter to Bassus and to Liberius Maximus, the procurator of Judea. He ordered that all Judea be offered for sale. He did not establish any city there, but kept the country for himself.

He did assign a place to eight hundred soldiers whom he had discharged from his army. He gave them the area as a place to live. It was called Emmaus and lay sixty furlongs from Jerusalem.

He also imposed a tribute on the Jews wherever they lived. Each of them had to pay two drachmae every year to the Capitol, just as they had once paid the same amount to the temple in Jerusalem.

That was the condition of Jewish affairs at that time.

CHAPTER 7

Concerning the Calamity That Befell Antiochus, King of Commagene, and the Alans, and the Great Harm They Did to the Medes and Armenians

1

In the fourth year of Vespasian's reign, Antiochus, king of Commagene, and his whole family fell into great trouble. This happened for the following reason.

Cesennius Paetus was then governor of Syria. Whether he acted because he believed the report to be true or because he hated Antiochus was never fully known. He sent a letter to Caesar, claiming that Antiochus and his son Epiphanes had decided to rebel against Rome and had made an agreement with the king of Parthia for that purpose. He warned Caesar that they should be stopped before they could begin a war that might disturb the entire Roman Empire.

Caesar took the report seriously. The location of these kingdoms made the matter especially important. Samosata, the capital of Commagene, stood beside the Euphrates. If Antiochus had truly planned such a rebellion, the city would have given the Parthians an easy crossing over the river and a safe place to receive them.

Paetus was believed, and Caesar gave him authority to do whatever he thought necessary. Paetus acted without delay. He invaded Commagene before Antiochus or his people had any idea that he was coming. He had the Tenth Legion with him, along with several cohorts and units of cavalry. Aristobulus, king of Chalcidene, and Sohemus, king of Emesa, also joined him.

No one in the country resisted when the Roman forces entered. Not a single person dared raise a hand against them. When Antiochus heard the unexpected news, he didn't even consider fighting the Romans. Instead, he decided to leave his kingdom exactly as it was and withdraw secretly with his wife and children. He believed this would show the Romans that he was innocent of the charges against him.

He left the city and traveled about 120 furlongs into a plain, where he set up his tents.

2

Paetus sent some of his men to take Samosata. They captured the city while Paetus himself marched against Antiochus with the rest of his army.

Even in his desperate situation, Antiochus refused to fight the Romans. He mourned his misfortune and patiently endured what he couldn't prevent. His sons, however, were young and inexperienced in war, but they were strong and unwilling to suffer such a disaster without defending themselves.

Epiphanes and Callinicus therefore took up arms. The battle was fierce and continued throughout the day. Both sons showed great courage, and the fighting ended only when night came. Neither side had suffered a serious loss by that point.

Even so, Antiochus refused to remain there. He took his wife and daughters and fled with them to Cilicia. His escape destroyed the confidence of his soldiers. They lost hope that he could keep his kingdom, so they deserted him and joined the Romans. Everyone believed that Antiochus was now completely defeated.

Epiphanes and his soldiers had to escape before they were left without any allies. Only ten horsemen remained with him. Together, they crossed the Euphrates and traveled without being attacked to Vologeses, king of Parthia. Vologeses didn't treat them as defeated fugitives. He honored them as though they were still enjoying their former power and prosperity.

3

When Antiochus reached Tarsus in Cilicia, Paetus ordered a centurion to arrest him and send him to Rome in chains.

Vespasian couldn't bear the thought of having a king brought before him in that condition. He chose to remember the old friendship between them rather than continue his anger over the alleged rebellion. He ordered that Antiochus's chains be removed while he was still on the journey. Antiochus wasn't to be taken to Rome. Instead, he was told to live in Lacedaemon.

Vespasian also granted him a large income, enough for him to live in comfort and maintain the dignity of a king.

Epiphanes had been extremely worried about his father's fate. When he heard what had happened, the great fear that had troubled him was relieved. He also hoped Caesar would forgive him if Vologeses asked on his behalf. Although Epiphanes was living well in Parthia, he didn't want to remain outside the Roman Empire.

Caesar gave him permission to return in a gracious manner. Epiphanes came to Rome, and his father soon joined him there from Lacedaemon. They were treated with every kind of respect, and they remained in Rome.

4

There was a nation called the Alans, whom we have mentioned before. They were Scythians who lived near Lake Maeotis. Around this time, they planned to invade Media and the lands beyond it so they could plunder them.

To carry out this plan, they negotiated with the king of Hyrcania. He controlled the passage that Alexander the Great had once closed with iron gates. The king allowed the Alans to pass through, so they entered in great numbers and attacked Media without warning.

They found the country full of people and rich in cattle, yet no one dared to resist them. Paeorus, the king of the land, had fled in fear to places the Alans couldn't easily reach. He surrendered everything he owned and managed to save only his wife and concubines. Even that was difficult. They had already been captured, and he had to pay 100 talents for their ransom.

The Alans therefore plundered the country without opposition and with little effort. They continued as far as Armenia, destroying everything in their path.

Tiridates was king of Armenia. He met the Alans in battle and fought against them, but he nearly fell into their hands alive. One of the enemy threw a net over him from a distance and began pulling him in. Tiridates quickly cut the rope with his sword and escaped.

The Alans were even more enraged after seeing this. They ravaged the country, carried away many people, and took a great deal of the plunder they had gathered from both kingdoms. Afterward, they withdrew with their captives and goods and returned to their own land.

CHAPTER 8

Masada and the Sicarii Who Held It, Silva's Siege of the Fortress, and Eleazar's Speeches to the Besieged

1

After Bassus died in Judea, Flavius Silva became procurator. By then, the Romans had subdued nearly the whole country, and only one fortress still remained in rebellion. Silva gathered the army stationed in different places and marched against it. The fortress was called Masada.

Eleazar, a powerful man and the leader of the Sicarii, had taken control of Masada. He was descended from Judas, the man who had urged many Jews, as we have already related, not to submit to the census and taxation ordered when Cyrenius was sent into Judea. At that time, the Sicarii rose against those who were willing to obey the Romans. They treated these people as enemies, robbed them of their possessions, drove away their livestock, and burned their houses.

They claimed that those who submitted to Rome were no different from foreigners because they cowardly surrendered the freedom for which Jews were supposed to fight to the end. They said such people preferred slavery under Rome to the struggle for liberty. In truth, these words were only an excuse for their cruelty and a cover for their greed, as their later actions made plain. Those who joined them in rebellion also joined them in the war against Rome and went even further in their shameless acts. When their false claims were exposed, they responded by abusing those who rightly condemned their wickedness.

That period produced every kind of evil. No wicked deed seemed to remain untried, and no one could invent a new form of wrongdoing because everyone was already competing to outdo one another in impiety toward God and injustice toward their neighbors. Powerful men oppressed the common people, while the common people worked eagerly to destroy the powerful. Some wanted to rule over everyone else, while others wanted to attack their neighbors and rob anyone richer than themselves.

The Sicarii began these crimes. They were the first to become savage toward their own people. They left no insult unspoken and tried every destructive act they could imagine against those who stood in their way.

John later showed that the Sicarii had been more restrained than he was. He killed not only those who advised him to do what was right, but treated such people as his bitterest enemies. He filled the country with countless examples of wickedness, the kind of acts a man hardened in his rebellion against God would naturally commit. The food served at his table was unlawful, and he rejected the purifications required by the law of his people. It was no surprise that a man so reckless toward God showed no kindness or ordinary affection toward other people.

What evil did Simon son of Gioras leave undone? What abuse did he spare those very free men who had raised him up as their tyrant? Friendship and family ties only made him more willing to murder. He considered harming strangers beneath his courage, but believed that cruelty toward his closest relations proved how fearless he was.

The Idumeans competed with these men in madness. Those vile people murdered the high priests so that no respect for God would remain. They then destroyed the last traces of public government and brought every kind of lawlessness into the country. Under these conditions, the group called the Zealots grew powerful. Their name fit them, but only in the worst sense. They eagerly copied every wicked act. Whenever they remembered some evil that had been done before, they pursued it with fresh energy. They called themselves Zealots because they claimed to be zealous for what was good, but the name suited them only as a bitter joke. They treated people with wild and brutal cruelty and considered the greatest harm to be the greatest good.

All these men eventually suffered the ends that God justly brought upon them. They endured every misery human nature can bear, and death came to them through many forms of torment. Still, one could say that they suffered less than they deserved, because no punishment could fully match their crimes.

This is not the place to mourn all those who fell under their cruelty. I will now return to the rest of the story.

2

The Roman commander now marched against Eleazar and the Sicarii who held Masada with him. Silva quickly took control of the surrounding country and placed garrisons at the most useful locations. He also built a wall all the way around the fortress so that none of the besieged could easily escape. Soldiers guarded every section of the wall.

Silva chose a suitable place for his camp, where the rock of Masada came closest to the neighboring mountain. Even there, supplying the army was difficult. Food had to be carried from far away, which caused great hardship for the Jews assigned to bring it. Water also had to be transported to the camp because there was no nearby spring.

After arranging these matters, Silva began the siege. It would require great skill and much labor because of the fortress's strength. I will now describe the place.

3

Masada stood on a large, high rock. Deep valleys surrounded it, so deep that the eye could not see their bottoms. Their sides were steep, and no animal could cross them. Only two places on the rock sloped enough to allow an ascent, and even those paths were difficult.

One path led from the direction of Lake Asphaltitis toward the east. The other was on the western side, where the climb was easier. The eastern path was called the Serpent because it was narrow and twisted like that animal. It passed along the rock's projecting cliffs, turned back upon itself again and again, and slowly worked its way upward. Anyone using it had to shift from one foot to the other with every step. A single slip meant death, because a deep chasm opened on either side. The sight alone was enough to destroy a person's courage.

After a climb of thirty furlongs, the path reached the top of the mountain. The summit was not a narrow peak but a broad, level plain.

Jonathan the high priest first built a fortress on this summit and named it Masada. King Herod later rebuilt it on a much larger scale. He surrounded the entire summit with a wall seven furlongs long. The wall was made of white stone, twelve cubits high and eight cubits thick. Thirty-eight towers rose from it, each fifty cubits high. Smaller buildings stood inside the wall and opened toward it.

Herod reserved the summit's rich soil for farming. The ground was more fertile than the soil in many valleys, so the people who took refuge there would not be left without food if outside supplies failed.

He also built a palace near the western ascent, below the fortress wall and toward the northern side. Its walls were high and strong, with a tower at each corner. Every tower was sixty cubits high. The palace, its courtyards, and its baths were furnished with great variety and expense. Pillars made from single blocks of stone supported the buildings. The walls and floors were paved with stones of different colors.

Herod cut many large reservoirs into the rock. He placed them wherever people lived, above and around the palace, and near the outer wall. Through this system, he stored enough water for many uses, as if the fortress had natural springs.

A road led from the palace to the summit, but people outside the walls could not see it. Enemies could not easily use the ordinary roads, either. The eastern path was nearly impossible to climb because of the land itself. Along the western road, Herod built a large tower at its narrowest point. The tower stood a thousand cubits below the summit. No one could pass it easily, and it could not be taken without great difficulty.

Masada was protected by both nature and human construction. Its position and defenses made an attack extremely difficult.

4

The supplies kept inside the fortress were even more impressive than its defenses. Large stores of grain had been gathered there, enough to feed people for a long time. There were also great quantities of wine and oil, along with every kind of dried bean, grain, and dates.

Eleazar and his Sicarii found these stores when they captured the fortress through treachery. The fruit was still fresh and fully ripe. It was hardly less wholesome than fruit recently gathered, even though almost a hundred years had passed since Herod stored it there. When the Romans later took possession of the fortress, they found that the fruit left behind had not spoiled.

The height of the fortress and the clean, dry air probably preserved it. The air was free from the dampness and muddy particles found in lower places.

The Romans also found a large supply of weapons. Herod had stored enough arms for ten thousand men. There were weapons made of iron, bronze, and tin. This showed how carefully he had prepared the fortress for a serious emergency.

People said that Herod had rebuilt Masada as a refuge against two dangers. The first was the Jewish people themselves. He feared they might remove him from power and restore their former kings. The second danger was greater and more frightening. It came from Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, who openly told Antony that he should kill Herod and give the kingdom of Judea to her.

It is surprising that Antony never carried out her request, since his passion for Cleopatra had made him so dependent on her. No one would have been shocked if she had received what she wanted.

Fear of these dangers led Herod to rebuild Masada. He left it behind as a fortress that would later become the Romans' final target in the Jewish war.

5

As I have said, Silva built a wall around the entire fortress and carefully guarded it so that none of the besieged could escape. He then began the siege. There was only one place where the Romans could build an earthwork.

Behind the tower that guarded the western road to the palace and summit was a broad, projecting section of rock. It stood three hundred cubits below the highest point of Masada and was called the White Promontory.

Silva took control of this place and ordered the army to carry earth there. The soldiers worked quickly and in great numbers. They raised a solid embankment two hundred cubits high.

Even that height was not enough for the siege engines. The Romans built another platform on top of it, using large stones fitted tightly together. This second structure was fifty cubits high and fifty cubits wide.

The other siege machines were like those first designed by Vespasian and later used by Titus. The Romans also built a tower sixty cubits high and covered it with iron. From this tower, they hurled darts and stones at the defenders. The attacks forced the Jews away from the walls and kept them from raising their heads above the defenses.

Silva then brought forward the great battering ram he had prepared. The Romans set it against the wall and struck it repeatedly. After some difficulty, the ram broke through part of the wall and brought it down.

The Sicarii immediately built another wall inside the first. They designed it so that the siege engines could not destroy it in the same way. Instead of being rigid, the new wall was soft and flexible, allowing it to absorb the force of the blows.

They built it with large wooden beams laid lengthwise, end to end. Two parallel rows of beams formed the sides of the wall, with a space between them as wide as the wall needed to be. They filled that space with earth. To keep the earth from falling out as the wall rose, they laid more beams across the others and fastened the whole structure together.

The result looked like a solid building. When the Romans struck it with their machines, the wall gave way under the blows and weakened their force. The shaking pressed the materials closer together, making the wall stronger.

When Silva saw this, he decided to burn it. He ordered the soldiers to throw a large number of burning torches against the wall. Since most of it was made of wood, it quickly caught fire. Once the flames began, the hollow spaces inside caused the fire to spread into a great blaze.

At first, a north wind created a serious danger for the Romans. It drove the fire down toward them, and they nearly gave up, fearing that their siege machines would burn. Then the wind suddenly shifted to the south, as if by God's will. It blew hard in the opposite direction and drove the flames against the wall. Soon the entire wall was burning.

The Romans took this change as a sign that God had helped them. They returned to their camp with joy and planned to attack the next day. That night, they guarded the siege lines more carefully than before so that none of the Jews could escape without being seen.

6

Eleazar had no intention of fleeing, and he would not allow anyone else to flee either. When he saw that the wall had been destroyed by fire and could find no other means of escape, he thought about what the Romans would do to the men, women, and children if they captured them.

He decided that they should all die. Believing this was the best choice left to them, he gathered the bravest of his companions and urged them to follow his plan. He spoke to them in this way:

"Long ago, my brave friends, we decided that we would never become slaves to the Romans or to any other master. We would serve God alone, because he is the only true and just Lord of mankind. The time has now come for us to prove that decision through our actions.

"We must not bring shame upon ourselves by contradicting what we once declared. We refused slavery when it carried no immediate danger. We must not now accept slavery along with punishments too terrible to bear, simply because we are afraid to die.

"We were the first to rebel against the Romans, and we are the last still fighting them. I count it as a gift from God that we still have the power to die bravely and remain free. Others were defeated by surprise, but we still control the manner of our death.

"We will be captured within a day. Even so, it is still possible for us to die with honor, along with the people we love most. Our enemies may want to take us alive, but they cannot stop us from doing this. We can no longer expect to defeat them in battle.

"We should have understood God's purpose sooner, when we first fought to defend our freedom. We suffered cruelly at one another's hands and suffered even worse treatment from our enemies. We should have recognized that the same God who once favored the Jewish nation had now condemned it.

"If God were still pleased with us, or even less angry with us, he would not have allowed so many of our people to be destroyed. He would not have handed over his holy city to be burned and torn down by our enemies.

"We foolishly hoped that we alone could remain free, as if we had committed no sins against God and had shared in none of the sins committed by others. We even taught other people to defend their freedom. Now God has shown us that our hopes were empty by bringing us to this desperate condition.

"Our fortress seemed impossible to conquer, but it has not saved us. We still have more food, weapons, and supplies than we need, yet God has taken away every hope of escape. The fire that was driven against our enemies did not turn back against our wall by accident. It was God's anger against us for the many crimes we committed against our own people.

"Let us not receive our punishment from the Romans. Let us receive it from God, through our own hands. That punishment will be gentler than anything the Romans would give us.

"Let our wives die before they are violated, and our children before they taste slavery. After we kill them, let us give one another the same honorable gift. In this way we will preserve our freedom, and our deaths will become a noble monument to us.

"First, though, we must burn our money and destroy the fortress. I am certain the Romans will be greatly disappointed when they cannot seize our bodies or our wealth. We should spare only our food. It will prove, after we are dead, that we were not defeated because we lacked supplies. In keeping with our first decision, we chose death over slavery."

7

This was Eleazar's speech. Not everyone who heard it agreed with him. Some were eager to carry out his plan. They were almost pleased by the thought and believed death was a good thing. But the more tender-hearted men felt pity for their wives and families.

When these men thought about their own certain deaths, they looked at one another with tears in their eyes. Their faces showed that they rejected Eleazar's counsel.

Eleazar saw their fear and understood that their grief might weaken the courage of those who had accepted his words. He continued urging them to act. He gathered his thoughts, found new arguments to strengthen them, and decided to speak at greater length about the soul's immortality.

With a sorrowful groan, he fixed his eyes on those who were weeping and said:

"I was mistaken when I thought I was speaking to brave men who had fought for freedom and were ready either to live with honor or to die. Now I see that you are no better than other people in courage or virtue. You fear death even though death would free you from the greatest misery.

"You should not delay or wait for someone else to give you advice. The laws of our country and the laws of God have taught us this from ancient times. Our ancestors confirmed it through their actions and courage. Life is a burden to men, not death. Death frees the soul and sends it to its own pure place, where it no longer feels misery.

"As long as the soul is tied to a mortal body, it shares in the body's suffering. To speak plainly, the soul is already dead while it remains joined to the body, because what is divine does not belong naturally with what is mortal.

"The soul still has great power while it is imprisoned in the body. Though invisible, it moves the body and makes it a tool for action. Through the soul, the body can accomplish more than mortal nature could accomplish by itself.

"When the soul is released from the weight that pulls it toward the earth, it returns to its proper place. It shares in a blessed power and gains abilities that nothing can hinder.

"The soul cannot be seen by human eyes, just as God cannot be seen. It is invisible while it lives in the body, and it remains invisible after it leaves the body. It has one nature, and that nature cannot perish.

"The soul is the cause of every change in the body. Whatever the soul touches lives and flourishes. Whatever it leaves behind withers and dies. This shows how much immortality belongs to it.

"Sleep gives us the clearest proof of what I am saying. When the body no longer distracts the soul, the soul rests in sweetness, communes with God because it shares a connection with him, travels everywhere, and foretells many things that have not yet happened.

"Why should we fear death when we enjoy the rest of sleep? How foolish it is to seek freedom while we are alive and then refuse that same freedom when it can last forever.

"We were raised under our own laws and discipline. We should be an example to others in our readiness to die. If we need foreigners to teach us this lesson, let us look to the Indians who practice philosophy.

"Those men accept life unwillingly. They see it as a necessary form of servitude and hurry to release their souls from their bodies. They do not wait for disaster or pressure before choosing death. Their desire for immortal life is so strong that they announce their departure ahead of time.

"No one tries to stop them. Everyone considers them fortunate and gives them letters to carry to friends who have already died. They are certain that souls continue to speak with one another in the next life.

"After receiving the instructions meant for them, these men give their bodies to the fire. They seek to separate the soul from the body in the purest way, and they die while others sing songs of praise.

"Their closest friends lead them to death more willingly than other people lead their fellow citizens on a long journey. The friends cry for themselves, but they consider the dying to be fortunate because they are about to join the immortal beings.

"Should we be ashamed that our beliefs are lower than those of the Indians? By our cowardice, should we disgrace the laws of our country, laws that people everywhere admire and imitate?

"But suppose we had been raised to believe that life is the greatest good a person can possess and that death is a disaster. Even then, our present condition should persuade us to face death with courage. We are going to die by God's will and by necessity.

"It is now clear that God has passed judgment on the whole Jewish nation. We are being deprived of a life that he knew we would not use properly.

"Do not blame only yourselves for our present condition, and do not imagine that the Romans alone caused this war to destroy us. Their power did not bring all these things about. A stronger cause gave them the chance to appear victorious over us.

"What Roman weapons killed the Jews at Caesarea? Those people were not rebelling. They were observing the seventh-day festival and had not even raised a hand against the citizens of Caesarea. Yet the citizens attacked them in large numbers and killed the men, women, and children. They did it without concern for the Romans, who had not considered us enemies until we rebelled against them.

"Someone may say that the people of Caesarea had always quarreled with the Jews who lived among them and only used the opportunity to satisfy an old hatred. What, then, shall we say about the people of Scythopolis? They went to war against us because of the Greeks. They did not act out of revenge for Rome, even though they fought alongside our own countrymen.

"You can see how little our goodwill and loyalty helped us. The people of Scythopolis and their families were slaughtered with the greatest cruelty. Their reward for helping the others was to suffer the same destruction they had kept away from them, as if they themselves had been preparing to attack their neighbors.

"It would take too long to list every disaster that has struck us. You know that there was not one Syrian city where the Jewish residents were not killed, and those cities became more hateful enemies to us than the Romans.

"Even the people of Damascus had no reasonable accusation against us. Still, they filled their city with a savage slaughter and killed eighteen thousand Jews, along with their wives and children.

"We have also been told that more than sixty thousand Jews were killed in Egypt, many of them after being tortured. They lived in a foreign land and had no natural advantage against their enemies, so they were murdered in the way I have described.

"As for those of us who fought Rome in our own country, did we not have good reason to hope for victory? We had weapons, walls, and fortresses that seemed difficult to take. We had courage that danger could not shake, because we believed we were fighting for freedom. These things encouraged us to revolt against Rome.

"Yet our advantages lasted only a short time. They raised our hopes, but they became the beginning of our misery. Everything we possessed has been taken from us. Everything has fallen into enemy hands, as if our preparations existed only to make the Roman victory more glorious and not to save the people who made them.

"We should consider those who died in the war fortunate. They died defending their freedom, not betraying it. But who would not pity the many who are now held by the Romans? Who would not choose a quick death rather than suffer what they suffer?

"Some have been stretched on the rack, tortured with fire, or beaten until they died. Some were only half-eaten by wild animals, then kept alive so the animals could devour them again and provide our enemies with entertainment. Those who remain alive are the most miserable of all, because they wanted death but could not reach it.

"Where is the great city that was the capital of the Jewish nation? It had many surrounding walls, strong fortresses, high towers, and tens of thousands of men ready to fight for it. It was believed that God himself lived there.

"Now that city has been destroyed to its foundations. Only one monument remains, the camp of those who destroyed it, still standing among the ruins. A few unfortunate old men sit upon the ashes of the temple, and a small number of women remain alive in enemy hands, preserved only for our shame.

"Who can think about these things and still bear to look upon the sun, even if he remains safe? Who is so hostile to his country, so weak, and so eager to live that he does not regret being alive?

"I wish we had all died before seeing the holy city destroyed by our enemies and the foundations of the temple dug up in such a profane way.

"We once held a noble hope that deceived us. We thought we might avenge ourselves on our enemies. That hope has now become empty and has left us alone in our distress. We must hurry to die bravely.

"Let us pity ourselves, our children, and our wives while we still have the power to show them pity. We were born to die, just as the children we have fathered were born to die. No person, however fortunate, can escape death.

"Abuse, slavery, and the sight of our wives being led away in disgrace with their children are not natural or necessary parts of human life. But those who can choose death instead of these things and refuse to do so through cowardice will suffer them.

"We rebelled against Rome while claiming great courage. When Rome finally offered us a chance to save ourselves, we refused. Who, then, can doubt that the Romans will be furious if they capture us alive?

"The young men will be miserable because their strong bodies will allow them to endure many tortures. The old will be miserable because they will not have the strength to bear what younger men can endure. A father will hear his son calling for help while his hands are tied.

"But our hands are still free, and each of us has a sword. Let our hands serve our honorable purpose. Let us die before we become slaves to our enemies. Let us leave this life with our children and wives while we are still free.

"Our laws command us to do this. Our wives and children ask it of us. God himself has placed this necessity before us. The Romans want the opposite, and they fear that any of us might die before they take us.

"Let us hurry, then. Instead of giving them the pleasure they expect from capturing us, let us leave them an example that will astonish them when we die and make them admire our courage."

CHAPTER 9

How the People in the Fortress Were Persuaded by Eleazar's Speech to Kill One Another, Except for Two Women and Five Children

1

As Eleazar continued his speech, the people cut him short and hurried to carry out what they had decided. Their spirits were unshaken, and they were driven by a fierce and almost frenzied determination. Each person rushed forward, trying to be ahead of the others. They believed that their courage and loyalty would be proved if they were not among the last to act. Such was their eagerness to kill their wives, their children, and themselves.

When the time came, their courage did not fail them. They held firmly to the decision they had made while listening to Eleazar. Still, each person felt the natural love that people have for themselves and their families. They believed that the reasons for what they were about to do were right, even when those reasons concerned the people they loved most.

The husbands embraced their wives with tenderness. They took their children into their arms and kissed them for the last time, with tears in their eyes. Yet they carried out their decision as if strangers had been ordered to do it. The only comfort they had was the thought that they were avoiding the suffering their enemies would bring upon them.

Not one of these men refused to take part in the terrible act. Each killed his closest relations. They were miserable men, forced by their circumstances to murder their own wives and children with their own hands, believing this to be the lesser of the evils before them.

Afterward, they could no longer bear the grief of what they had done. They felt that it would be an insult to those they had killed if they continued living, even for a short time. So they gathered everything they had into one heap and set it on fire.

Then they chose ten men by lot to kill everyone else. Each of the remaining people lay down beside his wife and children, wrapped his arms around them, and offered his neck to the man chosen to strike him. When the ten men had completed this sorrowful task without fear, they cast lots again among themselves. The man chosen first would kill the other nine and then kill himself.

They all showed the same courage, whether they were killing or waiting to be killed. The nine offered their necks to the last executioner. When he was left alone, he looked over all the bodies to make sure that no one among the dead still needed his help. After he saw that everyone had been killed, he set fire to the palace. Then he drove his sword through his own body with all his strength and fell dead beside his family.

These people died with the intention that not one person among them would remain alive to fall under Roman control. Yet an old woman, another woman who was related to Eleazar and was wiser and better educated than most women, and the second woman's five children had hidden in underground caves. They had carried water there and remained concealed while the others killed one another.

The total number of those who died was 960, including the women and children. This disastrous slaughter took place on the fifteenth day of the month Xanthicus, which is called Nisan.

2

The Romans expected the people in the fortress to fight them in the morning. They put on their armor and laid wooden bridges across the ladders from their embankments, preparing to attack the fortress.

When they reached the place, they found no enemy waiting for them. Instead, there was a terrible silence everywhere. A fire was burning inside the fortress, but not a person could be seen.

The Romans couldn't understand what had happened. At last, they shouted loudly, hoping that someone inside would answer or come out. The women heard them and emerged from the underground cave. They told the Romans what had taken place. One of the women also gave a clear account of Eleazar's speech and described everything that had followed.

The Romans found it hard to believe that such a desperate act had really occurred. They tried to put out the fire and quickly cut a path through it. When they entered the palace, they found the great number of dead.

They felt no pleasure in what had happened, even though the dead had been their enemies. Instead, they were amazed by the courage of these people and by the firm contempt for death that had allowed so many of them to carry out such a terrible deed.

CHAPTER 10

How Many of the Sicarii Fled to Alexandria, the Dangers They Faced There, and the Destruction of the Temple Once Built by Onias the High Priest

1

After Masada had been captured, the Roman general left a garrison there to guard the fortress and returned to Caesarea. No enemies remained in the country. The long war had left Judea completely ruined.

Still, the war caused trouble and disorder in places far from Judea. Many Jews were killed in Alexandria, Egypt. A number of Sicarii had escaped there after the revolts in Judea. They weren't satisfied merely to save themselves. They began stirring up new trouble and persuaded many of the people who sheltered them to fight for their freedom.

They told these people that the Romans were no better than they were and that God alone was their Lord and Master. But some respected Jews opposed them. The Sicarii killed several of these men and strongly urged the rest to rebel against Rome.

When the leading members of the Jewish council saw how insane this movement had become, they no longer thought it was safe to ignore it. They gathered all the Jews into an assembly and accused the Sicarii of causing the disasters that had fallen upon them.

They said:

"These men have fled from Judea, but they have no real hope of escape. As soon as the Romans discover where they are, the Romans will destroy them. Now they have come here and are bringing their own troubles upon us, even though we had no part in their crimes. We must be careful, or they will bring destruction upon all of us. We should hand them over to the Romans and show that we had no part in what they did."

The people understood the danger and agreed to the plan. They attacked the Sicarii with great force and seized them. About six hundred were captured at once.

Those who had escaped into Egypt and to Thebes were captured soon afterward and brought back. Everyone was astonished by their courage, though some wondered whether it should be called courage, madness, or stubbornness.

Their captors used every kind of torture and bodily punishment they could devise. Yet not one of the Sicarii could be forced to admit, even in appearance, that Caesar was his lord. They held firmly to their belief despite all their suffering. They endured the torture and the fire as if their bodies felt no pain and their souls took joy in what they suffered.

What amazed the spectators most was the courage of the children. Not one of them was overcome by the torture enough to call Caesar his lord. This showed how the strength of the soul can overcome the weakness of the body.

2

At that time, Lupus governed Alexandria. He immediately sent word to Caesar about the disturbance. Caesar already suspected that the Jews were always ready to begin another revolt. He feared that they might gather again and persuade others to join them.

Because of this, he ordered Lupus to destroy the Jewish temple in the district called Onion, in Egypt. This temple had been built for the following reason.

Onias, the son of Simon and one of the Jewish high priests, had fled from Antiochus, king of Syria, when Antiochus made war against the Jews. Onias went to Alexandria, where Ptolemy welcomed him because he hated Antiochus.

Onias promised that, if Ptolemy accepted his proposal, he would bring all the Jews to help him. He asked the king for permission to build a temple somewhere in Egypt, where the Jews could worship God according to the customs of their own country.

Onias said the Jews would be more willing to fight Antiochus because Antiochus had destroyed the temple in Jerusalem. They would come to Ptolemy with greater loyalty, and many more would join him if he allowed them to worship freely.

3

Ptolemy accepted Onias's proposal and gave him a place about one hundred eighty furlongs from Memphis. The district was called the nome of Heliopolis.

There, Onias built a fortress and a temple. It wasn't built like the temple in Jerusalem, but it was made in the shape of a tower. He constructed it from large stones and raised it to a height of sixty cubits.

The altar was built to resemble the altar in Jerusalem. Onias also decorated it with gifts in the same manner, except for the lampstand. He didn't make a lampstand. Instead, he had a single lamp hammered out of a piece of gold. It shone throughout the temple and hung from a gold chain.

A wall of baked brick surrounded the entire temple, while the gates were made of stone. The king also gave Onias a large area of land to provide revenue. This supplied the priests with what they needed and gave the temple enough resources for its worship.

Onias didn't build the temple from a calm or honorable purpose. He wanted to rival the Jews in Jerusalem, and he still resented being driven out of that city. He believed the new temple would draw many Jews away from Jerusalem and bring them to him.

An ancient prophecy had also been given by Isaiah about six hundred years earlier. It said that a temple in Egypt would be built by a Jewish man. This was the history of the temple's construction.

4

After Lupus, the governor of Alexandria, received Caesar's letter, he went to the temple. He removed some of the gifts that had been dedicated there and then closed the temple.

Lupus died a short time later, and Paulinus took his place. Paulinus allowed none of the remaining gifts to stay. He severely threatened the priests unless they brought everything out.

He also refused to let anyone who wished to worship God come near the sacred site. After he shut the gates, the temple became completely inaccessible. No sign of the worship once practiced there remained.

The temple had stood for 343 years from the time it was built until the time it was closed.

CHAPTER 11

Concerning Jonathan, One of the Sicarii, Who Started a Revolt in Cyrene and Falsely Accused Innocent Men

1

The madness of the Sicarii spread like a disease and reached the cities of Cyene. A wicked man named Jonathan, who worked as a weaver, came there and persuaded many of the poorer people to listen to him. He led them into the desert after promising that he would show them signs and visions.

Jonathan hid his deceit from the other Jews in Cyrene and continued to trick his followers. But the leading men of the Jewish community informed Catullus, the governor of the Libyan Pentapolis, about Jonathan's journey into the desert and the preparations he had made. Catullus sent cavalry and infantry after them. Since the group was unarmed, the soldiers defeated them without difficulty. Many were killed in the fighting, while others were captured and brought before Catullus.

Jonathan, who had planned the whole revolt, escaped at first. But after a thorough search throughout the country, he was finally captured. When he was brought before Catullus, he came up with a plan that saved him from punishment and gave Catullus a chance to harm many others. Jonathan falsely accused the wealthiest Jews, claiming that they had ordered him to do what he had done.

2

Catullus readily accepted Jonathan's lies. He made the accusations sound even worse and cried out as though he had helped bring the Jewish war to an end. The situation became even more shameful because Catullus not only believed the false stories, but also taught the Sicarii how to accuse innocent people.

Catullus ordered Jonathan to name Alexander, a Jew with whom he had once quarreled and whom he openly hated. He also told him to accuse Alexander's wife, Bernice. Catullus had both of them killed first. Afterward, he ordered the deaths of every wealthy Jew he could find, more than three thousand people in all. He believed he could do this without fear because he seized their property and added it to Caesar's treasury.

3

Catullus was afraid that Jews living in other places might expose his crimes, so he pushed the false accusations even further. He persuaded Jonathan and several others captured with him to accuse respected Jews in Alexandria and Rome of plotting a revolt.

One of the men targeted by this treacherous accusation was Josephus, the author of this history. Catullus believed his plan would succeed. He went to Rome and brought Jonathan and the others with him in chains. He expected that no one would investigate the lies created under his rule or with his approval.

But Vespasian suspected that something was wrong and ordered an inquiry. After learning that the accusations against the Jews were false, he cleared them of every charge. Titus also took an interest in the matter. Jonathan received the punishment he deserved. He was tortured first and then burned alive.

4

The emperors treated Catullus so leniently that he received no severe punishment at that time. Before long, however, he became sick with a complicated illness that was nearly impossible to cure, and he died in misery.

His body suffered, but his mind suffered even more. He became terribly disturbed and kept crying out that he saw the ghosts of the people he had killed standing before him. He could no longer control himself. He would leap from his bed as though torture and fire had been brought to him.

His illness grew worse and worse. His intestines became so damaged that they came out of his body, and he died in that condition. His death became a clear example of Divine Providence and showed that God punishes wicked men.

5

Here I will end this history. I promised to explain, with complete accuracy, how the war between the Romans and the Jews was carried out for those who wished to understand it.

The readers must decide how well the work is written. But as for its truthfulness, I will say this without hesitation: throughout the whole history, my only goal has been to tell the truth.

PREFACE

 

Book 1

 

Book 2

 

Book 3

 

Book 4

 

Book 5

 

Book 6

 

Book 7