The Jewish War – Book 3

BOOK III

Containing the Events of About One Year

From Vespasian's Arrival to Subdue the Jews to the Capture of Gamala

CHAPTER 1

Nero Sends Vespasian to Syria to Make War Against the Jews

1. When Nero heard that the Roman army had suffered a defeat in Judea, he was seized with secret fear and alarm, as often happens in such situations. In public, however, he put on a bold face. He showed great anger and claimed that the Romans had failed because their commander had been careless, not because the enemy had shown courage. Since he believed that the ruler of the whole empire should look down on such misfortunes, he pretended to be above all fear and sorrow. Still, the worry in his mind was plain from the care he took to restore Roman power.
2. Nero then considered whom he should place in charge of the East, which was in such turmoil. He needed a commander who could punish the Jews for their rebellion and stop the same unrest from spreading to the neighboring nations. He found no one more suited to this task than Vespasian. Vespasian was already an experienced soldier, having spent most of his life in military service. He had brought the western provinces back under Roman control after the Germans had thrown them into disorder. He had also conquered Britain by force of arms, even though the Romans had known little about the island before then. Because of that victory, his father, Claudius, received a triumph without having to win it himself.
3. Nero regarded these achievements as favorable signs. Vespasian's age had given him experience and military skill. His two sons were also with him, and Nero thought their presence would guarantee their father's loyalty. Since they were both young and capable, they could carry out their father's plans in the field. Perhaps Providence was already preparing the way for Vespasian to become emperor himself. In any case, Nero appointed him commander of the armies in Syria. He sent him with great praise and flattering words, hoping to win his cooperation and obedience.

Vespasian sent his son Titus from Achaia, where Titus had been staying with Nero, to Alexandria. There, Titus was to gather the Fifth and Tenth Legions and bring them back. Vespasian crossed the Hellespont and traveled overland to Syria. Once he arrived, he assembled the Roman forces and added a large number of auxiliary troops supplied by the kings of the surrounding countries.

CHAPTER 2

A Great Slaughter at Ascalon, and Vespasian Comes to Ptolemais

1

After the Jews defeated Cestius, their unexpected victory filled them with such confidence that they could no longer restrain their zeal. Their success fired them up, and they carried the war into places farther from Jerusalem.

They quickly gathered a large force made up of their strongest soldiers and marched against Ascalon. This was an ancient city, five hundred and twenty furlongs from Jerusalem. It had always been hostile to the Jews, so they chose it as their first target and moved as close to it as they could.

Three men led the expedition. They were the strongest and most capable among the Jews: Niger, who was called the Persite; Silas of Babylon; and John the Essene.

Ascalon had strong walls, but there was little help nearby to defend it. Its garrison consisted of only one cohort of infantry and one troop of cavalry, commanded by Antonius.

2

The Jews were angry and marched faster than usual. Since they had come from a short distance, they reached the city before Antonius could be taken by surprise. He already knew they were coming, however, and had drawn out his cavalry before the attack began.

Antonius wasn't frightened by the Jews' numbers or by their courage. He met their first assault with great bravery, and when they pressed close to the walls, he drove them back.

The Jews had little skill in war, while their enemies were trained soldiers. They were infantry fighting against cavalry. They were disorganized, while the Romans stood in proper formation. They had few weapons, while the Romans were fully armed. The Jews fought mostly from anger, not from careful planning. The Romans obeyed their commanders at once and carried out every order without hesitation.

For this reason, the Jews were easily defeated. As soon as their front ranks broke formation, the Roman cavalry put them to flight. Those behind the men pressing toward the walls fell upon the weapons of their own soldiers, and the Jews began killing one another.

At last, they could no longer withstand the cavalry. They scattered across the plain, which was wide and well suited to mounted troops. This gave the Romans a great advantage and caused the deaths of many Jews. When the Jews tried to flee, the cavalry overtook them and forced them back. Once they had driven the fugitives together, they charged through them and killed them in great numbers.

The Romans surrounded groups of Jews wherever they found them and drove them in whatever direction they chose. Then they cut them down with ease. The large number of Jews became no advantage to them. Because of the trouble they were in, the whole plain seemed empty to them. The Romans, though few in number, had been so successful that they seemed to themselves like the larger army.

The Jews fought fiercely despite their losses. They were ashamed of having fled so quickly and still hoped their fortune might change. The Romans, encouraged by their success, showed no weariness. The battle continued until evening.

Ten thousand Jews were killed, including two of their commanders, John and Silas. Most of the survivors were wounded, including Niger, the only one of the three generals still alive. He fled with the others to a small city in Idumea called Sallis. A few Romans were also wounded in the battle.

3

Even after such a terrible defeat, the Jews weren't discouraged. Their losses only made them more determined to try again. They stepped over the bodies of their dead and, remembering their earlier victories, rushed toward another disaster.

They rested only a short time, and their wounds had not yet fully healed when they gathered their forces again. This time they came against Ascalon in greater numbers and with even more fury.

Their previous defeat had come from their lack of training and their other weaknesses in war, and those same faults followed them. Antonius placed ambushes along the roads they had to use. The Jews fell into these traps without warning. Before they could form a proper battle line, the Roman cavalry surrounded them.

More than eight thousand Jews were killed. The rest fled, including Niger, who still performed many brave acts during his escape.

The Romans pursued them closely and drove them into a strong tower belonging to a village called Bezedeh. Antonius and his men didn't want to spend much time trying to capture the tower, since it was difficult to take. They also didn't want Niger, their commander and the bravest man among them, to escape.

So they set the tower on fire. As the flames rose, the Romans withdrew in triumph, believing that Niger had been destroyed. But Niger had leaped from the tower into a deep underground cave within it, and he survived.

Three days later, the Jews were searching for him with great sorrow so they could give him a proper burial. Then they heard his voice coming from beneath the ground. When Niger finally came out, all the Jews were filled with unexpected joy. They believed that God's providence had saved him so he could lead them in the days ahead.

4

Vespasian now took his army from Antioch. Antioch was the capital of Syria and, by its size and prosperity, was without question the third greatest city in the Roman world.

King Agrippa was waiting there with all his forces. Vespasian took the army and marched to Ptolemais.

The people of Sepphoris in Galilee also came to meet him. They wanted peace with the Romans. They had already taken steps to protect themselves because they understood the power of Rome. Before Vespasian arrived, they had gone to Cestius Gallus, pledged their loyalty to him, accepted his protection, and received a Roman garrison.

They welcomed Vespasian, the Roman commander, and readily promised to help him against their own countrymen. At their request, the general gave them as many cavalrymen and infantrymen as he believed they needed to resist any attack by the Jews.

The loss of Sepphoris would have been a serious blow to the Romans in the war that was beginning. It was the largest city in Galilee, and its natural position made it difficult to capture. If the Romans held it, they could use it to secure the loyalty of the whole country.

CHAPTER 3

A Description of Galilee, Samaria, and Judea

1

Phoenicia and Syria surround the two regions of Galilee, known as Upper Galilee and Lower Galilee. On the western side, they border the territory of Ptolemais and Mount Carmel. Carmel once belonged to the Galileans, but it now belongs to the Tyrians. Near the mountain lies Gaba, called the City of Horsemen because the cavalrymen dismissed by King Herod settled there.

On the south, Galilee borders Samaria and Scythopolis, reaching as far as the Jordan River. On the east, it borders Hippeae, Gadaris, Gaulanitis, and the lands belonging to the kingdom of Agrippa. Its northern boundary reaches Tyre and the territory of the Tyrians.

Lower Galilee stretches lengthwise from Tiberias to Zabulon, while Ptolemais lies near its coastal territory. Its width runs from the village called Xaloth, located in the Great Plain, to Bersabe. The same point marks the width of Upper Galilee, which reaches as far as the village of Baca. Baca separates Galilee from the land of the Tyrians. Upper Galilee extends lengthwise from Meloth to Thella, a village near the Jordan River.

2

These two regions of Galilee are large and surrounded by many foreign nations, yet they have always been able to resist their enemies in war. The Galileans train for war from childhood, and their population has always been large. The country has never lacked brave men or a strong supply of soldiers.

The land is rich and fertile, filled with every kind of tree. Its abundance encourages even the laziest people to work the soil. For this reason, the inhabitants cultivate every part of it, and no section lies unused.

The cities are close together, and the many villages are crowded with people because the soil is so productive. Even the smallest villages contain more than fifteen thousand inhabitants.

3

If anyone compares Galilee with Perea and finds Galilee smaller, that person must still give Galilee the advantage in strength. Nearly all of Galilee can be cultivated, and its soil is fertile everywhere. Perea is much larger, but much of it is wild, rough, and poorly suited to the softer kinds of fruit.

Other parts of Perea have moist soil and produce many kinds of fruit. Its plains are filled with trees, especially olive trees, grapevines, and palm trees. The region has plenty of water from mountain streams and from springs that never stop flowing, even during the hottest days of summer, when the streams often dry up.

Perea extends lengthwise from Macherus to Pella, and its width reaches from Philadelphia to the Jordan River. Pella forms its northern boundary, while the Jordan marks its western boundary. The land of Moab lies to the south. Its eastern limits reach Arabia, Silbonitis, Philadelphene, and Gerasa.

4

Samaria lies between Judea and Galilee. It begins at a village in the Great Plain called Ginea and ends at the toparchy of Acrabbene. The land is much like Judea, since both regions consist of hills and valleys. Both receive enough moisture for farming and are highly fertile.

They have many trees and produce large amounts of autumn fruit, including both wild fruit and fruit grown through cultivation. They don't have many rivers, so they receive most of their moisture from rainfall, which is plentiful. The rivers they do have carry exceptionally sweet water.

The grass is so good that the cattle produce more milk than cattle in other regions. The clearest sign of the land's fertility and abundance is that both Samaria and Judea are densely populated.

5

The village of Anuath, also called Borceos, lies on the border between Samaria and Judea. It is the northern boundary of Judea. The southern end of Judea, measured lengthwise, reaches a village near the border of Arabia. The Jews who live there call it Jordan.

The width of Judea extends from the Jordan River to Joppa. Jerusalem lies near the center of the country, which is why some people wisely call it the navel of the land. Judea also has access to the sea, since its coastal territory reaches as far as Ptolemais.

The country was divided into eleven regions. Jerusalem, the royal city, was the chief of them and ruled over the surrounding land, just as the head rules over the body. The other important cities governed their own toparchies. Gophna was second in rank, followed by Acrabatta, Thamna, Lydda, Emmaus, Pella, Idumea, Engaddi, Herodium, and Jericho. Jamnia and Joppa also governed the people living around them.

The regions of Gamala, Gaulanitis, Batanea, and Trachonitis were also part of the kingdom of Agrippa. This territory begins at Mount Libanus and the sources of the Jordan River. Its width reaches the Lake of Tiberias, and its length extends from a village called Arpha to Julias. Its inhabitants are a mixture of Jews and Syrians.

This is a brief description of Judea and the lands surrounding it.

CHAPTER 4

Josephus Attacks Sepphoris but Is Driven Back. Titus Arrives at Ptolemais With a Great Army

1. The troops sent to help the people of Sepphoris consisted of 1,000 cavalry and 6,000 infantry under the command of the tribune Placidus. They set up two camps in the great plain. The infantry entered the city to guard it, while the cavalry stayed outside in the camp.

The cavalry constantly rode through the surrounding country, raiding one place after another and causing Josephus and his men great trouble. They plundered every settlement beyond the city's protection and seized anyone who dared to travel outside. Because of this, Josephus marched against Sepphoris. He hoped to capture the city, which he had recently surrounded with such a strong wall, before its people could separate themselves from the other Galileans. He thought the Romans would then have a much harder time taking it.

But Josephus was too weak to force his way into the city, and he also failed to persuade the people of Sepphoris to surrender it to him. His attack only angered the Romans and gave them reason to treat the country as an enemy territory. Day and night, they burned the villages in the plain, drove away the cattle, and killed anyone who appeared able to fight. They took the weaker people captive and sold them into slavery.

Galilee was filled with fire and blood, and no kind of suffering was absent from the land. The people had only one refuge. When the Romans chased them, they could escape into the fortified cities that Josephus had built.

2. Titus sailed from Achaia to Alexandria, arriving sooner than the winter season usually allowed. He gathered the troops he had been sent to bring and marched with great speed. He suddenly arrived at Ptolemais, where he found his father with the Fifth and Tenth Legions, the most distinguished of all the Roman legions. Titus added these forces to the Fifteenth Legion, which was already with his father.

Eighteen cohorts followed the legions. Five more cohorts came from Caesarea, along with one troop of cavalry. Syria sent another five troops of horsemen. Each of these ten cohorts had 1,000 infantrymen. The other thirteen cohorts had 600 infantrymen and 120 cavalrymen each.

A large number of auxiliary troops also arrived from King Antiochus, King Agrippa, and King Sohemus. Each king sent 1,000 archers on foot and 1,000 horsemen. Malchus, the king of Arabia, sent 1,000 cavalrymen and 5,000 infantrymen, most of them archers.

When all these forces were gathered, the army totaled 60,000 soldiers, including the cavalry and infantry sent by the kings. This number didn't include the servants who followed the army in great numbers. They had trained for war alongside their masters, so they should not be counted as separate from the fighting men. In times of peace, they served their masters; in times of war, they shared the same dangers. They were equal to the soldiers in skill and strength, except that they remained subject to their masters.

CHAPTER 5

A Description of the Roman Army, Roman Camps, and Other Things for Which the Romans Are Praised

1.

Here we can't help admiring the Romans' careful planning. They chose household servants who could perform the ordinary duties of daily life and also help them in war. Anyone who looks closely at the rest of their military discipline must admit that the Romans gained their vast empire through courage and preparation, not through luck alone.

They don't wait for war before learning how to use their weapons. They don't leave their bodies idle during peace and then expect them to perform in battle. Their weapons seem to be part of their daily lives, because they never stop practicing the skills of war. Their military training is almost the same as actual combat. Every soldier exercises each day with great effort, as if he were already in battle.

This is why they endure the hardships of war so easily. Disorder doesn't break their ranks, fear doesn't drive them from their positions, and exhaustion doesn't stop them. Their steady discipline allows them to defeat enemies who lack the same discipline. A person could rightly call their training bloodless battles and their battles bloody training.

Their enemies also have little chance of surprising them with a sudden attack. When the Romans enter enemy territory, they don't begin fighting until they have fortified their camp. They don't build their defenses carelessly or leave the ground uneven. The soldiers don't all stay wherever they please, and they don't choose their places at random. If the ground is rough, they level it first.

The camp is measured into a square. Large numbers of carpenters stand ready with their tools, prepared to build whatever structures are needed.

2.

The inside of the camp is reserved for tents, while its outer boundary looks much like a wall. Towers are placed at equal distances along it. Between the towers are machines for shooting arrows and darts, throwing stones, and carrying out every other kind of attack. All these weapons are kept ready for use.

The Romans build four gates, one on each side of the camp. Each gate is large enough for animals to pass through and wide enough for the soldiers to make an attack when necessary. Inside the camp, they lay out the streets in an orderly way. The commanders' tents stand in the center, and the general's tent is placed at the very heart of the camp.

The general's tent has the appearance of a temple. The whole camp looks like a city built in a short time. It has a marketplace, areas for tradesmen, and seats for officers of every rank. When disputes arise, they are brought there and settled.

A wall surrounds the camp and everything inside it. The soldiers build it so quickly that a person might not believe it was possible. Their large number and their skill make the work easy. When needed, they also dig a trench around the entire camp. The trench is four cubits deep and just as wide.

3.

Once the camp is secure, the soldiers live together by companies in an orderly and peaceful way. Everything else is managed with the same care. Each company receives firewood, grain, and water whenever it needs them. The soldiers don't eat or drink whenever they happen to choose. They take their meals together.

Trumpets announce the times for sleeping, keeping watch, and rising. Nothing is done without a signal. In the morning, each soldier goes to his centurion. The centurions then go to their tribunes to greet them. After that, all the senior officers go to the commander of the entire army.

The general gives them the watchword and any other orders. They pass these instructions to the soldiers under their command. The same system is followed when the army goes into battle. Because the soldiers are trained to respond at once, they can suddenly turn and make a sortie when needed. When the signal calls them back, they return together just as quickly.

4.

When the army is preparing to leave the camp, the trumpet sounds. No one remains lying down. At the first signal, the soldiers take down their tents and prepare to depart.

The trumpets sound again, ordering everyone to get ready for the march. The soldiers quickly load their baggage onto mules and other pack animals. Then they gather at the starting point, prepared to move. They set fire to the camp before leaving. They know they can build another camp without trouble, and they don't want the enemy to make use of the one they leave behind.

A third trumpet call orders the army to march. It also urges forward anyone who has been delayed, so that no one leaves his place in the ranks. The herald then stands at the general's right hand and asks the soldiers three times, in their own language, whether they are ready to go to war.

Each time, they answer in a loud and cheerful voice, "We are ready." Often they answer before the herald has finished asking the question. They cry out as if filled with battle fever, and as they shout, they raise their right hands.

5.

After leaving the camp, the Romans march in silence and good order. Every soldier stays in his proper place, as if he were already moving into battle.

The infantry wear breastplates and helmets and carry swords at their sides. The sword on the left side is longer. The one on the right is no more than a span long. The infantrymen chosen to serve near the general carry a spear and a shield.

The rest of the foot soldiers carry a spear and a long shield. They also carry a saw, a basket, a pickax, an ax, a leather strap, and a hook. Each man carries enough provisions for three days. Because of this, an infantryman doesn't need a mule to carry his equipment.

The cavalry carry a long sword on the right side and hold a long spear in one hand. A shield hangs at an angle beside the horse. Each rider also carries three or more darts in a quiver. The darts have broad points and are no smaller than spears.

The cavalry wear helmets and breastplates just as the infantry do. The men chosen to serve near the general are armed in the same way as the cavalry in the other units. The general always leads the legions assigned to that duty.

6.

This is how the Romans march and rest, and these are the different weapons they use. When they are preparing for battle, they leave nothing to chance and don't act without thought. They first hold a council, and only after a decision has been made do they put it into action. This is why they seldom make mistakes. When they do make one, they can usually correct it without much trouble.

They believe that a mistake made after careful planning is better than a success that comes only from luck. Good fortune can make people careless, but discussion makes them more cautious, even when the decision doesn't succeed. A victory gained by chance isn't truly the work of the person who receives it. When an unexpected disaster occurs, at least they can take comfort in knowing that they made the best plans they could to prevent it.

7.

The Romans train their soldiers in the use of weapons so that both body and mind become stronger. They also make the soldiers familiar with fear. Their laws call for the death penalty not only for soldiers who flee their ranks, but also for those who show laziness or serious neglect of duty.

Their generals are even stricter than the laws. Still, they avoid appearing cruel toward condemned soldiers because they give great rewards to those who fight bravely. The soldiers obey their commanders so readily that their obedience is impressive even during peace.

In battle, the whole army moves like a single body. The ranks fit tightly together. The soldiers turn quickly when ordered. They hear commands clearly, recognize their standards at once, and move their hands swiftly when the fighting begins. Because of this, they complete their tasks quickly and endure suffering with great patience.

There is no clear example of the Romans being defeated in close combat because of the enemy's larger numbers, clever tactics, difficult ground, or even luck. Their victories have been more dependable than chance could ever make them.

When careful planning always comes before action, and when the decisions made by that planning are carried out by such an active army, it isn't surprising that the Euphrates lies to the east, the ocean to the west, the richest parts of Libya to the south, and the Danube and Rhine to the north of the Roman Empire. A person could well say that the Roman possessions are no less impressive than the Romans themselves.

8.

I have given this account not mainly to praise the Romans, but to comfort those they have conquered and to warn others against trying to rebel against their rule. This description of Roman military customs may also help curious readers who know little about the subject but wish to understand it.

I now return from this digression.

CHAPTER 6

Placidus Tries to Take Jotapata but Is Driven Back. Vespasian Marches into Galilee

1

Vespasian and his son Titus remained at Ptolemais for some time while they organized their army. Placidus had already overrun much of Galilee and had killed many of the people he captured. Most of those victims were the weaker and more fearful Galileans. But when he saw that the fighting men kept retreating to the cities Josephus had fortified, he marched angrily against Jotapata.

Jotapata was the strongest of all those cities. Placidus believed he could take it by surprise. If he captured the strongest city first, he thought the others would lose courage and surrender. Such a victory would also bring him great honor among the Roman commanders and give the army an advantage in the campaign ahead.

But he was badly mistaken. The people of Jotapata learned that he was coming and went out of the city to meet him. They attacked the Romans when they least expected it. They were numerous, well prepared, and eager to fight because their homeland, wives, and children were in danger. They quickly drove the Romans back, wounded many of them, and killed seven.

The Roman retreat was not disorderly. Their armor protected most of their bodies, so the Jewish attacks often struck only the surface of their shields and armor. The Jews also kept their distance and threw their weapons rather than fighting the Romans hand to hand. The Romans were fully armed, while many of the Jews wore only light armor. Even so, the Jews lost three men, and a few others were wounded. When Placidus realized that he couldn't attack the city, he fled.

2

Vespasian was determined to attack Galilee, so he left Ptolemais with his army arranged in the order the Romans normally used on the march.

He sent the lightly armed auxiliaries and the archers ahead of the main force. They were meant to stop sudden attacks, search suspicious woods, and look for places where the enemy might be hiding in ambush.

After them came the fully armed Roman infantry and cavalry. Next marched ten soldiers out of every hundred. They carried their weapons and the tools needed to mark out a camp. Behind them came the men assigned to prepare the road. They straightened the path, leveled rough ground, and cut down trees that blocked the army's way. This kept the soldiers from becoming exhausted or trapped by difficult terrain.

Behind these men came the army's wagons, including those belonging to Vespasian and the other commanders. A large number of cavalry guarded them. Vespasian followed with a chosen force of infantry, cavalry, and spearmen.

After him came the special cavalry assigned to his legion. Every legion had 120 of these horsemen. Next were the mules carrying the siege engines and other machines of war.

The cohort commanders and military tribunes followed, each surrounded by soldiers selected from the rest of the army. Then came the standards, with the eagle at the head of every Roman legion. The Romans considered the eagle, the king of birds and the strongest of them all, a sign of their rule and a promise of victory over every enemy they faced. The trumpeters marched behind the standards.

The main army followed in its units and battalions, six men deep. A centurion came behind them and watched over the entire formation, as was customary. The servants of each legion followed the infantry, leading the mules and other pack animals that carried the soldiers' supplies.

The mercenaries came behind all the legions. The men at the very rear guarded the whole army. They included infantry, fully armed soldiers, and a large number of horsemen.

3

This was how Vespasian marched into Galilee. When he reached its borders, he set up camp and held back his soldiers, who were eager to fight. He also displayed the full strength of his army to frighten the enemy and give them time to change their minds before the battle began. At the same time, he prepared everything needed to besiege the fortified cities.

The sight of the Roman general and his army caused many people to regret their revolt. It also threw the Galileans into confusion. Josephus had a camp at a city called Garis, not far from Sepphoris. When the men there heard that the war had reached them and that the Romans were about to fight them face to face, they scattered and ran away.

They fled before any battle took place and even before they saw the enemy. Only Josephus and a few others remained. Josephus understood that he didn't have enough soldiers to face the Romans. He saw that the Jews had lost heart and that most of them would gladly make peace if they could trust the Romans to honor an agreement.

He had already lost hope that the war could succeed. So he decided to get as far away from danger as possible. Taking the men who had stayed with him, he fled to Tiberias.

CHAPTER 7

Vespasian Takes Gadara and Marches Against Jotapata. After a Long Siege, a Deserter Betrays the City, and Vespasian Captures It

1

Vespasian marched against Gadara and captured it in the first attack. The city had very few grown men fit for war, so it had little strength to resist him. Once the Romans entered, they killed every young man they found. They showed no mercy because of the hatred they had for the Jewish people and because of the wrong they believed the Jews had committed in the matter of Cestius.

Vespasian also burned the city, along with the villages and estates around it. Some of those places had already been abandoned. From others, he carried away the people as slaves.

2

When Josephus withdrew to Jotapata, the people of Tiberias became greatly afraid. They thought he would never have fled there unless he had lost all hope that the war could succeed. In this, they understood his thoughts correctly. Josephus could see where the affairs of the Jews would finally lead, and he knew they had only one way to escape ruin: they had to repent.

He believed the Romans might forgive him, but he would rather die many times than betray his country. He also refused to disgrace the command of the army that had been placed in his hands, or to live in comfort under the rule of those he had been sent to fight.

Still, he decided to send a full report to the leading men in Jerusalem. He did not want to exaggerate the strength of the Romans and frighten them into surrender. But he also did not want to make the Roman army seem weaker than it was and encourage them to continue the war when they might be ready to repent.

He told them that if they wished to negotiate, they had to send him an answer at once. If they intended to keep fighting, they needed to send him an army strong enough to face the Romans. After writing these things, he immediately sent messengers with his letter to Jerusalem.

3

Vespasian was determined to destroy Jotapata. He had learned that most of the Jewish fighters had taken refuge there, and he knew the city was otherwise a place of great safety for them.

He sent soldiers and cavalry ahead to prepare the road. The way was mountainous and covered with rocks. Foot soldiers could barely travel over it, and horses could not pass at all. The workers finished their task in four days and opened a wide road for the army.

On the fifth day, the twenty-first day of the month Artemisius, which the Jews called Iyar, Josephus reached Jotapata from Tiberias. His arrival lifted the courage of the Jews inside the city.

A deserter carried this news to Vespasian. When Vespasian learned that Josephus had gone to Jotapata, he hurried toward the city. He thought that if he captured Josephus, he would soon bring all Judea under his control.

Vespasian considered the news a great gift from fortune. He believed it was the work of divine providence that the wisest of his enemies had shut himself inside a place from which escape would be difficult. He sent Placidus with a thousand cavalrymen, along with Ebutius, a decurion known for his skill in both counsel and action. Their orders were to surround the city and prevent Josephus from slipping away.

4

The next day, Vespasian followed with his entire army. They marched until late in the evening and then reached Jotapata.

He brought the army to the northern side of the city and camped on a small hill about seven furlongs away. He made sure the Jews could see the Roman forces clearly, hoping the sight would fill them with fear. The sight was so frightening that none of the Jews dared leave the city walls.

The Romans did not attack that day because they had been marching since morning. Instead, they placed two lines of soldiers around the city. Beyond them, they stationed a third line made up of cavalry, closing every possible way out.

This left the Jews with little hope of escape, but it also made them fight with greater courage. Nothing drives people to fight more fiercely than necessity.

5

The Romans attacked the next day. At first, the Jews came out from behind the walls and met them. They had formed their own camp in front of the city and were ready to defend it.

Vespasian placed archers, slingers, and other soldiers who could strike from a distance against them. He ordered these men to begin the attack while he led the infantry up a slope from which the city could be reached more easily.

Josephus feared that Jotapata was about to fall. He rushed out of the city, followed by a large number of Jews. Together they attacked the Romans in great force, drove them away from the walls, and performed many brave deeds.

The Jews suffered as much as they inflicted. Their lack of hope gave them courage, while the Romans were driven forward by shame. The Romans had both training and strength. The Jews had little more than courage, but that courage made them fight with great violence.

The battle continued throughout the day and ended only when night came. The Jews wounded many Romans and killed thirteen of them. Seventeen Jews were killed, and six hundred were wounded.

6

The next day, the Jews attacked the Romans again. They came out of the city and fought a much more desperate battle than before.

Their courage had grown because they had resisted the first attack so successfully. The Romans, too, fought with greater fury. They were ashamed that they had not won an easy victory, and they treated that failure as a kind of defeat.

For five days, the Romans continued trying to break into the city. Each day, the people of Jotapata made sallies from the walls and fought them with great determination. The Jews were not frightened by the Roman army's strength, and the Romans were not discouraged by the difficulty of taking the city.

7

Almost all of Jotapata stood on the edge of a cliff. Deep and steep valleys surrounded the city on every side. Anyone who looked down from the heights would lose sight of the bottom before reaching it.

The only approach was from the north. There, the farthest part of the city stood on a mountain that sloped down toward a plain. When Josephus fortified the city, he built a wall around this mountain so that the enemy could not seize its summit.

Other mountains surrounded Jotapata, hiding it from view. A person could not see the city until reaching its immediate outskirts. This was the natural strength of Jotapata.

8

Vespasian now had to overcome both the city's defenses and the courage of its people. He decided to press the siege with all his strength.

He called his commanders together for a council of war and asked them how they could attack the city with the greatest advantage. They decided to build a raised bank against the section of the wall that could be reached.

Vespasian sent the entire army to gather the materials. The soldiers cut down every tree on the mountains near the city and collected huge amounts of stone. Some also made large screens from woven branches to protect the workers from the weapons thrown down from the walls.

They spread these screens over the raised earthworks. Under their cover, the workers built the bank with little harm from the missiles above. Other soldiers tore apart the nearby hills and carried earth to the same place. Three groups worked at once, so no one stood idle.

The Jews fought back by throwing large stones and every kind of weapon against the screens. Even when the stones fell short, the crashing sound frightened the workers and slowed their work.

9

Vespasian then placed engines for throwing stones and darts around the city. There were 160 of them. He ordered their crews to attack the people on the walls and force them away.

The engines launched spears with a terrible noise. Others threw stones weighing a talent, along with fire and great numbers of arrows. The walls became so dangerous that the Jews were afraid to stand upon them. They also avoided the parts of the city that the Roman engines could reach.

Arabian archers, slingers, and soldiers who threw darts joined the attack. All of them worked at the same time as the engines.

The Jews did not remain inactive when they could no longer attack from above. They made sudden sorties from the city in small groups, like raiders. They tore away the screens that protected the Roman workers and killed the men once they were exposed.

When the workers fled, the Jews scattered the earth from the siege bank. They also burned its wooden supports and the screens that covered it.

Vespasian saw that the gaps between the different sections of the siege works were helping the Jews. Those open spaces gave them room to attack the Romans. He ordered the screens to be joined together and connected one part of the army with another. This stopped the Jews from making small attacks between the Roman positions.

10

By then, the siege bank had risen and reached closer than ever to the battlements. Josephus knew he could not allow the Romans to continue without taking action to save the city.

He gathered the workers and ordered them to raise the wall even higher. They told him it could not be done while so many weapons were being thrown at them. Josephus then devised a way to protect them.

He ordered them to set up poles and stretch the fresh hides of newly killed oxen in front of them. When stones struck the hides, the soft material bent and absorbed the force of the impact. Other weapons slid off them. Fire was put out by the moisture in the hides.

With this protection in place, the workers continued safely. They raised the wall during both the day and the night until it stood twenty cubits high. Josephus also built many towers along the wall and strengthened it with strong battlements.

This greatly discouraged the Romans. They had believed they were already close to entering the city, but Josephus's plan surprised them. They were also amazed by the courage of the people defending Jotapata.

11. Vespasian was now openly angered by the cleverness of this plan and by the courage of the people of Jotapata. Once they had regained confidence because of the new wall, they began making fresh attacks on the Romans. Every day, groups of them rushed out to fight, using the same tricks and methods that robbers use. They seized whatever they could find and set fire to the Roman works. At last, Vespasian ordered his army to stop engaging them in open fighting. He decided instead to surround the city and starve its people into surrender. He believed they would either be forced to ask for mercy when their supplies ran out, or they would refuse to yield and die of hunger. He also thought it would be easier to defeat them in battle after giving them time to grow weak from starvation. Even so, he ordered his soldiers to keep watch and prevent anyone from leaving the city.
12. The people inside the city had plenty of grain and other supplies, but they lacked water. There was no spring within Jotapata, and the people usually depended on rainwater. Rain was rare in that country during the summer, and the siege began during a season when water was already scarce. Josephus saw that the city had enough of everything else and that its defenders still had courage. Since he wanted to make the siege last longer than the Romans expected, he ordered the water to be handed out in measured amounts.

The people thought this limited distribution was almost worse than having no water at all. Because they couldn't drink as much as they wanted, their desire for water grew stronger. They became discouraged, as though they were already suffering from the worst thirst. The Romans soon learned how badly the people were struggling. When they stood outside the wall, they could see the citizens gathering to receive their small portions of water. The Romans threw their javelins into the crowd, since the people were within range, and killed many of them.

13. Vespasian expected the city's water stores to run out soon. He believed the people would then be forced to surrender. Josephus, however, wanted to destroy that hope. He ordered the citizens to soak many of their clothes and hang them over the battlements. Soon water ran down the entire wall.

When the Romans saw this, they were shocked and discouraged. They had believed the people didn't have enough water to drink, yet the citizens appeared able to waste so much of it for no reason. Vespasian then gave up on taking the city through thirst and returned to the attack. This was exactly what the Jews wanted. They had little hope that they or their city could survive, and they would rather die fighting than perish from hunger and thirst.

14. Josephus also found another way to bring the people the supplies they needed. A rough, uneven stretch of ground rose so steeply that it was difficult to climb, and the soldiers had left it unguarded. Josephus sent men out through the western side of the valley. They carried letters to Jews who lived outside the city and asked them to send in whatever supplies were needed. Those men then returned with the provisions.

Josephus told them to crawl close to the Roman guards as they approached the city. He also ordered them to cover their backs with sheep skins, with the wool still attached. If anyone saw them at night, the guards might mistake them for dogs. This continued until the Romans understood the trick and surrounded the rough ground with their own soldiers.

15. Josephus now realized that the city couldn't hold out much longer. He also understood that his own life was in danger if he stayed. He began discussing how he and the city's leading men might escape. When the people heard about this, they surrounded him and begged him not to abandon them. They depended on him alone, and they believed the city could still be saved if he remained.

They told him that everyone would gladly suffer if he stayed with them. Even if the city were captured, his presence would give them some comfort. They said he shouldn't run from his enemies or leave his friends behind. He shouldn't leap out of the city like a man jumping from a ship that was sinking in a storm, after entering it when the sea was calm. If he left, the city would drown, because no one would have the courage to resist the enemy once the man they trusted was gone.

16. Josephus didn't tell them that he wanted to leave for his own safety. Instead, he said he would leave for their sake. If he stayed while the city was still safe, he could do little to help them. If the Romans captured the city, he would simply die with them for no purpose. But if he escaped the siege, he could bring them great help. He would gather the Galileans from the surrounding country in large numbers and begin another war that would force the Romans to turn away from Jotapata.

Josephus also said he saw no benefit in remaining among them. His presence only made the Romans tighten the siege, since they considered capturing him a great prize. Once they learned he had escaped, their attack on the city might become less fierce.

The people weren't persuaded. His words only made them cling to him more strongly. Children, old men, and women carrying infants came to him in tears. They fell at his feet, held on to him, and begged him to share their fate. I think they acted this way not because they begrudged him the chance to escape, but because they still hoped to survive themselves. They couldn't imagine suffering a great disaster as long as Josephus remained with them.

17. Josephus believed that if he chose to stay, the people would say their pleas had changed his mind. If he tried to leave by force, they would probably take him prisoner. Their crying had also stirred his pity and weakened his desire to escape. At last, he decided to remain. Taking on the same hopelessness that filled the city, he said:

"Now is the time to begin fighting in earnest, since no hope of escape remains. It is better to choose glory over life and attempt something brave that future generations will remember."

After saying this, he attacked at once. He led a sortie against the enemy guards, drove them back, and pushed all the way to the Roman camp. There he tore apart the coverings over the Roman siege works and set fire to the structures. He continued fighting the next day and the day after that, keeping up the attacks for many days and nights.

18. Vespasian saw that these attacks were causing trouble for the Romans. His soldiers were ashamed to flee from the Jews, but whenever they managed to drive the Jews back, their heavy armor kept them from chasing them far. The Jews, meanwhile, returned to the city as soon as they had completed an attack, before the Romans could harm them.

Vespasian ordered his soldiers to avoid direct attacks and not to fight desperate men head-on. Nothing makes people bolder than knowing they have no hope left. He believed their fury would die down when they saw that their attacks were failing, just as a fire goes out when it has no fuel. The Romans should win their victories as cheaply as possible, he said, since they weren't forced to fight and only needed to expand their rule.

He used Arab archers, Syrian slingers, and soldiers who hurled stones to drive the Jews back. The Romans also kept their many siege engines firing without pause. These weapons caused great suffering among the Jews, who had no safe way to avoid them. When the machines sent stones and javelins flying from a distance, the Jews rushed toward the Romans whenever they came within reach. They fought with all their strength and spared neither their bodies nor their lives. Whenever one group grew tired, another took its place and came to its aid.

19. Vespasian now felt as if he were the one being besieged by the Jews' repeated attacks. His earthworks had come close to the city wall, so he decided to bring out the battering ram.

A battering ram is a huge wooden beam, as large as a ship's mast. Its front end has a thick iron head carved in the shape of a ram's head, which gives the weapon its name. Ropes hold the beam in the air near its center. It hangs from another beam like the balance of a scale and is supported on both sides by strong wooden braces. A large group of men pulls it backward with all their strength, then drives it forward with a heavy, crashing blow. The iron head strikes the wall again and again. No tower or wall can resist it forever. After enough blows, even the strongest defenses begin to give way.

Vespasian chose to use this weapon because he was determined to take the city. Remaining in the field had become dangerous, since the Jews never allowed him to rest. The Romans moved their other siege engines closer to the wall so they could attack the defenders above. They threw stones and javelins, while archers and slingers also moved within range. The pressure became so great that the Jews were afraid to climb onto the wall.

The Romans then brought forward the battering ram. Hurdles covered it on every side, and its upper section was protected by animal skins. These coverings protected both the soldiers and the machine. At the first blow, the wall shook. A terrible cry rose from the people inside the city, as if the Romans had already broken through.

20. When Josephus saw the ram striking the same section of the wall again and again, he knew the wall would soon collapse. He decided to weaken the machine's blows. He ordered the people to fill sacks with chaff and hang them in front of the place where the ram was striking. The soft chaff would absorb the blows or turn them aside.

This plan held up the Romans for a long time. Wherever they moved the ram, the defenders moved the sacks as well and placed them in front of the new target. The wall suffered little damage because the sacks deflected the force of the blows. The Romans then found a way to destroy them. They made long poles, attached hooks to the ends, and used them to cut down the sacks.

The battering ram regained its strength, and the newly built wall began to collapse. Josephus and the men with him immediately turned to fire. They gathered every dry material they could find, rushed out through three openings, and set fire to the Roman machines, hurdles, and earthworks. The Romans could hardly come to their aid. They were stunned by the Jews' boldness, and the flames blocked their way.

The dry materials were coated with bitumen and pitch, and sulfur was mixed among them. The fire spread at once and consumed everything in its path. Work that had cost the Romans great effort was destroyed in a single hour.

21. At this point, one Jew in particular earned our praise and deserves to be remembered. His name was Eleazar, the son of Sameas, and he came from Saab in Galilee. He picked up a huge stone and threw it down from the wall onto the battering ram. The blow was so powerful that it broke off the ram's head. Eleazar then jumped down, seized the head from among the enemy, and carried it back to the top of the wall without showing any fear. All the Romans were able to see him, and they hurled weapons at him as he climbed. He took five darts in his bare body, but paid no attention to the wounds. He reached the top of the wall and stood there in full view of the enemy, showing extraordinary courage. Then, covered with wounds, he collapsed and fell from the wall with the ram's head.

Two brothers showed their courage after him. Their names were Netir and Philip, and both came from the Galilean village of Ruma. They leaped upon the soldiers of the Tenth Legion and attacked the Romans with such force and noise that they broke their ranks and drove away everyone they reached.

22. After these deeds, Josephus and the people with him gathered a great amount of fire and burned the machines, their coverings, and the works belonging to the Fifth and Tenth Legions. They drove the Romans away, and others quickly joined them, burying the machines and all their materials under the ground.

Toward evening, the Romans rebuilt the battering ram and brought it against the same section of the wall that had already been damaged. A Jew defending the city threw a dart at Vespasian and struck him in the foot. The wound was slight because the dart had been thrown from a great distance, but it caused terrible confusion among the Romans. When the soldiers near Vespasian saw his blood, they panicked. Word spread through the army that their general had been wounded, and most of the soldiers abandoned the siege and rushed toward him in fear.

Titus came running at the head of them all because he was worried about his father. The army fell into complete disorder, partly because of its love for the general and partly because of the distress shown by his son. Vespasian quickly ended Titus' fear and restored order among the soldiers. He endured the pain, made sure everyone who had been frightened could see him, and urged them to attack the Jews with greater force. The soldiers were now eager to risk their lives to avenge their general. They shouted encouragement to one another and hurried toward the walls.

23. Josephus and the men with him continued to fight, even as the darts and stones from the Roman machines knocked them down one after another. They didn't abandon the wall. Instead, they attacked the men operating the battering ram, who were protected by wooden screens. The Jews used fire, iron weapons, and stones against them.

The Romans could do little to defend themselves and kept falling. Their own fires lit up their bodies, making them easy targets, while the Roman machines were difficult to see from a distance. The stones and darts thrown by the engines were hard to escape, and a single shot could injure several men at once.

The crashing stones made a terrible sound. They tore away the tops of the wall and broke the corners from the towers. No group of soldiers could withstand such blows. The stones were so large that they could knock down an entire line of men.

What happened that night showed the machines' strength. One of the men standing near Josephus was close to the wall when a stone struck him. It tore off his head and threw his skull three furlongs away. During the day, a pregnant woman had just stepped out of her house when a stone struck her with such force that the unborn child was thrown half a furlong.

The machines themselves made a terrifying noise, as did the darts and stones they released. The dead bodies made another horrible sound when they crashed against the wall. Inside the city, the women cried out in fear, while the dying answered them with their screams. The ground where the fighting took place ran with blood, and the dead bodies were piled so high that men could have climbed over the wall on them. The mountains added to the noise by sending the cries and crashes back in echoes.

Nothing that could frighten the eyes or ears was missing from that night. Still, many of the men fighting for Jotapata died bravely, and many more were wounded. The morning watch had already arrived before the wall finally gave way under the Roman machines, even though the attack had continued without stopping. Before the Romans could bring up the equipment they planned to use to enter the city, the people inside covered themselves with armor and built new defenses across the broken section.

24. In the morning, after allowing his soldiers a short rest from the hard fighting of the night, Vespasian gathered the army to storm the city. He wanted to draw the defenders away from the broken part of the wall, so he ordered his bravest cavalrymen to dismount. He placed them in three rows in front of the ruins, covering them with armor on every side and giving them poles to help them climb as soon as the machines were set in place.

Behind them he stationed the best of the infantry. He spread the rest of the cavalry across the hills in front of the wall so that no one could escape once the city was captured. Behind the cavalry, he positioned the archers and ordered them to keep their weapons ready.

He gave the same order to the slingers and to the men operating the machines. He also told them to bring more ladders and prepare them against sections of the wall that were still standing. This would force the defenders to guard those areas and leave the broken section less protected. Then the Roman weapons could drive them away and give the army a way into the city.

25. Josephus understood Vespasian's plan. He placed the old men and those who were worn out along the stronger parts of the wall, since he didn't expect the Romans to attack those places first. At the broken section, he stationed his strongest fighters. In front of them he placed six men, keeping a position among them so he could share the first and greatest danger.

He ordered the soldiers to cover their ears whenever the Roman legions shouted, so the noise wouldn't frighten them. To protect themselves from the enemy's weapons, they were to kneel, cover their bodies with their shields, and fall back a short distance until the archers had emptied their quivers.

Once the Romans began placing their ladders and other equipment against the wall, the Jews were to rush out suddenly and meet them with their own weapons. Each man was to fight as hard as he could, not merely to save a city that seemed destined to fall, but to avenge it after its destruction. Josephus told them to picture the old men being slaughtered and their children and wives being killed by the enemy. They were to release all their anger before those disasters arrived and direct it against the men who brought them.

26. Josephus arranged the two groups of soldiers in this way. As for the citizens who could not fight, the women and children, they saw the city surrounded by three lines of Roman troops. None of the guards who had fought earlier had been withdrawn. The walls had been broken down, the enemy stood below with drawn swords, and the hills above the city shone with weapons. The Arabian archers also held their darts ready.

The women and children raised a final, mournful cry, as though the city's destruction had already happened rather than merely being threatened. Josephus ordered the women to remain shut inside their houses. He feared that their cries would weaken the fighters by stirring pity for them. He commanded them to stay quiet and threatened them if they disobeyed.

Then he went to the breach, where he had taken his own position. He ignored the soldiers carrying ladders toward the other parts of the wall and waited for the storm of arrows that was about to begin.

27. The trumpeters of the Roman legions sounded together, and the entire army answered with a terrifying shout. The darts flew so thickly that they blocked out the light. Josephus' men remembered his orders. They covered their ears against the noise and shielded their bodies from the weapons.

Before the men assigned to operate the Roman machines could climb onto them, the Jews rushed out and attacked. When the soldiers began climbing, a fierce struggle broke out. The Jews fought with all their strength, determined to show no less courage than the Romans, who were attacking them without facing the same danger. They continued fighting until they fell dead or killed the men opposing them.

But the Jews became exhausted from defending the wall without relief. They had too few men to replace those who were tired or wounded. The Romans faced no such problem. Fresh soldiers kept taking the places of the exhausted, and new men climbed onto the machines whenever others were thrown down.

The Roman soldiers joined their shields together and encouraged one another. Protected as one solid body, they couldn't easily be broken. As this mass pushed the Jews back, the Romans began to climb onto the wall.

28. In this extreme danger, Josephus turned to necessity for a plan. Desperation often finds clever solutions when a person is driven hard enough. He ordered his men to pour boiling oil over the Romans whose shields were protecting them.

The Jews quickly gathered the oil and brought it in large quantities. They poured it over the Romans from every side and threw the containers down after them while they were still hot and hissing from the fire. The oil burned the Romans so badly that it broke apart their united formation. They fell from the wall in terrible pain.

Because the oil was thick and greasy, it ran easily over the entire body, from head to foot, beneath the armor. It stayed hot for a long time and burned the flesh like fire. The men were trapped inside their helmets and breastplates and had no way to escape it. They could only jump and roll in agony as they fell from the bridges they had placed against the wall.

As they were driven back toward the Roman lines, the soldiers behind them continued pushing forward. This left the wounded men exposed, and the Jews easily struck them.

29. Even after this failure, the Romans didn't lose their courage, and the Jews continued to use their wits against them. The Romans saw their soldiers falling in misery, yet they remained fiercely determined to attack the men pouring the oil. Each soldier called the man in front of him a coward and accused him of blocking the way.

The Jews used another plan to stop the Roman climb. They poured boiling fenugreek onto the wooden boards, making them slippery. The soldiers going up and those coming down could no longer keep their footing. Some fell backward onto the machines beneath them and were trampled. Others fell onto the earthwork the Romans had built and were killed by the Jews.

Once the Romans could no longer stand, the Jews no longer had to fight them hand to hand. They had time to throw their darts at the helpless soldiers. The general called back the troops in the evening after they had suffered so badly. Many Romans had been killed, and even more had been wounded.

Only six men from Jotapata were killed, although more than three hundred were wounded. This battle took place on the twentieth day of the month Desius, which is Sivan.

30. Vespasian encouraged his army after the battle. He saw that the soldiers were angry and needed something to do more than they needed another speech. He ordered them to raise the earthworks higher and build three towers, each fifty feet tall. They covered the towers on every side with iron plates, making them heavy, firm, and difficult to burn.

Vespasian placed the towers on the raised banks and put men on them who could shoot darts and arrows. He also placed small machines there to throw stones and darts. The strongest slingers took their positions on the towers as well. Because of the height and the protective battlements, the defenders couldn't see these men clearly, while the slingers could easily see those on the wall.

The Jews found it hard to escape the weapons falling onto their heads. They also couldn't strike back at men they couldn't see. The towers were so high that a hand-thrown dart could barely reach them, and the iron covering made them difficult to burn. The Jews fled from the walls and hurried back into the city.

This was how the people of Jotapata resisted the Romans. Many of them were killed each day, but they had no way to return the same damage to their enemies. They couldn't keep the Romans outside the city without putting themselves in danger.

31. Around this time, Vespasian sent Trajan against a city called Japha, near Jotapata. The people there wanted rebellion and had grown arrogant because Jotapata had resisted the Romans for so long. Trajan commanded the Tenth Legion, and Vespasian placed one thousand cavalry and two thousand infantry under his command.

When Trajan reached the city, he found it difficult to capture. Its position was naturally strong, and it was protected by two walls. When he saw the people come out ready to fight, he engaged them. They resisted only briefly before fleeing toward the first wall. The Romans followed so closely that they entered with them. But when the Jews tried to reach the second wall, their own people shut them out, fearing that the Romans would enter alongside them.

It seemed that God had brought the Romans to punish the Galileans, exposing every person in the city to destruction by their enemies. The people crowded around the gates, calling out to the guards by name and begging to be let inside, but their throats were cut while they pleaded. The Romans had closed the gates of the first wall, and their own citizens had closed the gates of the second. Trapped between the two walls, they were slaughtered in great numbers. Some were killed by the swords of their own countrymen, others by their own hands, and many more by the Romans.

They had no strength left to fight back. The fear caused by the enemy was made worse by the betrayal of their own people, and their courage failed completely. As they died, they cursed their fellow citizens rather than the Romans. All twelve thousand were eventually killed.

Trajan concluded that no able fighters remained in the city. Even if a few were still there, he believed they were too frightened to resist. He therefore left the final capture of the city to his commander and sent messengers to Vespasian, asking him to send his son Titus to complete the victory.

Vespasian thought that some fighting might still be required, so he sent Titus with five hundred cavalry and one thousand infantry. Titus quickly reached the city, arranged his forces, placed Trajan over the left wing, and took command of the right himself. Then they began the siege.

The soldiers brought ladders and placed them against the walls on every side. For a while, the Galileans fought back from above, but soon they abandoned the walls. Titus's soldiers climbed into the city and took it at once.

When the people inside gathered together, a fierce battle began. The strongest men attacked the Romans in the narrow streets, while the women threw whatever they could find and fought beside them for six hours. Once the fighting men were exhausted, the rest of the people were killed, both in the streets and inside their homes. The Romans killed the young and the old together.

No adult males remained. Only infants were spared, and the women and children were taken as slaves. The total number killed in the city and in the earlier battle was fifteen thousand. The number taken captive was two thousand one hundred thirty. This disaster struck the Galileans on the twenty-fifth day of the month Desius (Sivan).

32. The Samaritans also suffered during this time. They gathered on Mount Gerizim, their holy mountain, and stayed there together. Their large number and their bold attitude appeared to threaten another revolt. The suffering that had fallen on the surrounding cities had not made them wiser. Even after the Romans had won so many victories, the Samaritans marched forward recklessly, relying on their own strength and ready to cause trouble at the first opportunity.

Vespasian decided to stop them before they could begin an attack. Although Roman garrisons had long been stationed throughout Samaria, the large crowd gathered on Mount Gerizim and their united purpose made them a serious concern. He sent Cerealis, commander of the Fifth Legion, with six hundred cavalry and three thousand infantry.

Cerealis didn't think it was safe to attack the mountain directly because many of the Samaritans held the higher ground. Instead, he surrounded the lower slopes with his army and watched them throughout the day.

The Samaritans soon ran out of water. It was summer, and the crowd had not brought enough supplies. The heat became so severe that some died that same day. Others chose slavery over such a death and fled to the Romans. From them, Cerealis learned that those who remained on the mountain had been weakened by their suffering.

Cerealis then marched up the mountain and surrounded the enemy. He first urged them to accept his protection and make terms with him. He promised that if they laid down their weapons, he would keep them from harm. But they refused to surrender, so he attacked and killed them all. Their number was eleven thousand six hundred.

This happened on the twenty-seventh day of the month Desius (Sivan). Those were the disasters that fell upon the Samaritans at that time.

33. The people of Jotapata continued to hold out bravely. They endured hardships far beyond what anyone could have expected. On the forty-seventh day of the siege, the earthworks raised by the Romans had grown higher than the city wall.

That same day, a deserter went to Vespasian and told him how few people remained inside the city and how weak they had become. He said they had been worn down by constant guard duty and fighting and could no longer resist a serious attack. They might even be captured by surprise, he said, because near the last watch of the night, when they believed they would finally get some rest, their exhaustion brought on sleep, and the guards often fell asleep at that hour. He advised the Romans to attack then.

Vespasian distrusted the deserter. He knew that the Jews were loyal to one another and cared little about the punishments their enemies could inflict. One man from Jotapata had already endured every kind of torture during questioning. Even after being burned and tortured by the enemy, he refused to reveal anything about the city. When the Romans crucified him, he smiled at them.

Still, the deserter's story seemed believable, and some parts of it supported what he had said. Vespasian decided that even if the report was false, the Romans wouldn't suffer much by testing it. He ordered the man to be guarded and prepared the army to capture the city.

34. At the appointed hour, the Romans marched toward the wall without making a sound. Titus himself was the first to climb over it, together with one of his tribunes, Domitius Sabinus, and a small group from the Fifteenth Legion. They cut the throats of the guards and entered the city without alerting the people inside.

Cerealis, another tribune, followed with Placidus and led the soldiers under their command. By then, the citadel had been taken, the Romans were in the center of the city, and daylight had arrived. Yet the defenders didn't realize what had happened. Many were still asleep, and a heavy mist had fallen over the city. Those who woke couldn't clearly see the danger around them until the entire Roman army had entered.

The people rose only to discover that the city had been captured. As the Romans began killing them, they realized what had happened. The Romans remembered all they had suffered during the siege and showed no mercy. They drove the people down the steep slopes from the citadel and killed them as they fell.

The rough ground made it difficult for the defenders to fight back. They struggled to keep their footing in the narrow streets and along the precipice, while more people came down from the citadel and pressed against them. Many of the leading men who had gathered around Josephus killed themselves. When they saw that they could not kill any Romans, they chose to die by their own hands rather than be killed by the enemy. They gathered in large numbers at the farthest parts of the city and took their own lives.

35. Some of the guards realized at once that the city had been captured and ran as fast as they could. They climbed into a tower on the northern side of the city and defended themselves for a while. But when they were surrounded by a great number of enemies, they tried to fight back when it was already too late. In the end, they willingly offered their necks to the men standing over them.

The Romans could have claimed that they had lost no one in the final assault if a centurion named Antonius had not been killed. He died because of a deception. One of the men hiding in the many caves asked Antonius to extend his right hand and help him out. He promised that Antonius would be safe and that he would assist him in climbing from the cave.

Antonius reached down without suspicion. The man seized his hand, then stabbed him beneath the waist with a spear and killed him at once.

36. On that day, the Romans killed everyone they found in the open. During the days that followed, they searched the underground passages and caves and attacked those hiding there. They killed people of every age except the infants and women. Twelve hundred of them were gathered and taken captive.

The number killed during the capture of the city and in the earlier battles was forty thousand. Vespasian ordered the city to be completely destroyed and its fortifications burned.

Jotapata was captured in the thirteenth year of Nero's reign, on the first day of the month Panemus (Tamuz).

CHAPTER 8

How Josephus Was Found by a Woman and Agreed to Surrender to the Romans; What He Said to His Men When They Tried to Stop Him; What He Said to Vespasian When He Was Brought Before Him; and How Vespasian Treated Him Afterward

1. The Romans now searched everywhere for Josephus, partly because they hated him and partly because their general strongly wanted to capture him. Vespasian believed that if Josephus were taken, most of the war would soon be over. The soldiers searched among the dead and examined the hidden places throughout the city. Yet, when the city first fell, Josephus was saved by what seemed to be divine providence.

He escaped from the enemy while surrounded by them and jumped into a deep pit. At one side of the pit was a large cave, hidden from anyone standing above. Inside, he found forty important men who had taken refuge there, along with enough food to last them many days. During the day, Josephus stayed hidden while the Romans occupied every part of the city. At night, he climbed out of the cave and searched for a way to escape. He carefully studied the Roman guards, but every path was watched because the soldiers were looking for him. Since he couldn't get away without being seen, he returned to the cave.

He remained hidden for two days. On the third day, the Romans captured a woman who had been hiding with them, and she revealed his location. Vespasian immediately sent two tribunes, Paulinus and Gallicanus. He ordered them to promise Josephus that his life would be spared, offering him their right hands as a guarantee, and to urge him to come out.

2. The two tribunes came to the cave and invited Josephus to leave. They assured him that he would not be killed, but he didn't believe them. He suspected that a man who had done so much harm to the Romans would surely be punished, no matter how kindly the messengers spoke.

Josephus continued to fear that the Romans wanted him to come out only so they could execute him. Vespasian then sent a third tribune, Nicanor, who was well known to Josephus and had been his friend in earlier days. Nicanor spoke to him about the Romans' usual mercy toward conquered enemies. He told Josephus that his courage had been so great that the Roman commanders admired him more than they hated him.

Nicanor also explained that Vespasian wanted Josephus brought before him, not to punish him, since he could easily have him taken by force, but to preserve the life of so brave a man. If Vespasian had meant to deceive him, Nicanor said, he wouldn't have sent a personal friend or tried to disguise treachery as friendship. Nicanor himself would not have agreed to come if he believed Josephus was being lured into a trap.

3. Josephus began to consider Nicanor's offer. The soldiers, however, became angry when they saw that he was hesitating. They rushed forward and prepared to set fire to the cave. Nicanor stopped them because he wanted to take Josephus alive.

While Nicanor continued urging Josephus to surrender, Josephus understood that the enemy crowd outside was ready to attack. He remembered the dreams he had seen during the night. Through those dreams, God had shown him the future suffering of the Jewish people and the fate of the Roman emperors.

Josephus believed that he understood the meaning of dreams in which God revealed the future through symbols. He also knew the prophecies in the sacred books, since he was a priest and belonged to a family of priests. Overcome by what he remembered, he prayed silently and said:

"Since you have chosen to bring down the Jewish nation, the nation you created, and since their good fortune has passed to the Romans, and since you have chosen my soul to announce what will happen in the future, I willingly give myself into their hands. I am ready to live. I openly declare that I am not going over to the Romans as a traitor to the Jews, but as your servant."

4. After saying this, Josephus accepted Nicanor's invitation. But when the Jews who had escaped with him learned that he was willing to come out, they surrounded him and shouted:

"Now the laws of our ancestors, the laws given by God himself, have good reason to mourn. We mean the God who gave the souls of the Jews such courage that they despise death. Josephus, are you still eager to live? Can you bear to see the light while living as a slave?

"How quickly you have forgotten who you are. You persuaded many people to die for freedom. You gained a false reputation for courage, and an equally false reputation for wisdom, if you think you can be spared by the Romans after fighting them with such determination. Even if the Romans truly intend to spare you, we must protect the honor of our ancestors.

"We will give you our right hands and our swords. If you are willing to die, you will die as the commander of the Jews. But if you refuse to die, you will die as a traitor to them."

After saying this, they began thrusting their swords toward him. They threatened to kill him if he surrendered to the Romans.

5. Josephus feared that his men would attack him, but he also believed that he would betray God's commands if he died before delivering the message he had been given. In the middle of this danger, he spoke to them as a philosopher:

"My friends, why are we so eager to kill ourselves? Why do we set our soul and body, which are such close companions, against each other? Can anyone claim that I am no longer the man I once was? The Romans know well enough what kind of man I am.

"To die in war is honorable, but only when death comes according to the laws of war, at the hands of the conquerors. If I escape death by the Roman sword, then I deserve to be killed by my own sword and my own hand. But if the Romans are willing to show mercy and spare an enemy, how much more should we show mercy to ourselves?

"It is foolish to do to ourselves what we accuse our enemies of doing to us. I admit that dying for freedom is honorable, but it should happen in battle, at the hands of those who are taking that freedom away. In our present situation, our enemies aren't meeting us in battle, and they aren't killing us.

"A man who refuses to die when death is required is a coward. But a man who dies when he isn't required to die is also a coward. What are we afraid of when we refuse to go to the Romans? Death? If we fear that our enemies might kill us, why should we kill ourselves for certain?

"Perhaps someone will say that we will become slaves. But are we free now? Someone may also say that killing oneself is a manly act. It isn't. It is the act of a coward. I would call a pilot a complete coward if, fearing a storm, he sank his own ship.

"Suicide goes against the nature shared by all living creatures. It is also an insult to God, our Creator. No animal chooses to destroy itself. Every living thing has the desire to remain alive. That is why we consider those who openly kill us to be enemies, and we punish those who destroy us through treachery.

"Don't you think God is angered when a person harms what God has given him? Our life comes from God, so we must leave it to God to decide when it should be taken away. The bodies of all people are mortal and made from material that will decay. But the soul is immortal and is a part of the divine presence within us.

"If a person destroys or misuses something entrusted to him by another human being, we call him wicked and faithless. If a person throws out of his body the divine gift entrusted to him, can we imagine that the one who gave that gift doesn't know what has happened?

"Our law rightly punishes slaves who run away from their masters, even if those masters have treated them badly. Will we then try to run away from God, the best of all masters, who has done us no wrong?

"Don't you know that those who leave this life according to nature's law, paying back the life God gave them when God asks for it, gain everlasting honor? Their homes and descendants remain secure. Their souls are pure and obedient, and they receive a holy place in heaven. In the turning of the ages, they are sent again into pure bodies.

"But the souls of those who have foolishly killed themselves are received into the darkest parts of Hades. God, their Father, punishes those who offend against him, and he may also punish their descendants. That is why God hates this act, and why our wise lawgiver has punished it.

"Our laws say that the bodies of those who kill themselves should lie exposed until sunset without burial, even though the bodies of our enemies may be buried sooner. Other nations also order that the hands of those who kill themselves be cut off after death, since those hands were used to destroy the body while the person was alive. They regard the body as separate from the soul, and the hand as separate from the body.

"My friends, we must reason correctly. We shouldn't add an offense against our Creator to the disasters that have already come upon us. If we want to preserve our lives, let us preserve them. There is no shame in being spared by enemies to whom we have already shown our courage.

"If we want to die, then let us die by the hands of those who have defeated us. As for me, I won't go over to the enemy in order to betray myself. I would be more foolish than those who deserted to the Romans. They deserted to save their lives, but I would go to the Romans only to destroy mine.

"Still, I hope the Romans prove faithless in this matter. If they kill me after offering their right hands as a guarantee, I will die gladly. I will carry the knowledge of their treachery with me, and that knowledge will be a greater comfort than victory."

6. Josephus used these arguments and many others to stop his men from killing themselves. But despair had closed their ears. They had already decided to die, and they were angry with Josephus. They rushed at him with swords in their hands, attacking him from every side. They called him a coward, and each man seemed ready to strike.

Josephus called one of them by name, spoke to another as a commander, took a third by the hand, and made a fourth feel ashamed by begging him to stop. In the middle of this terrible confusion, driven by many emotions, Josephus kept their swords from reaching him.

He was like a wild animal surrounded on every side, turning against whichever enemy had most recently touched it. Some of the men lost their strength because they still respected their commander in his suffering. Their swords fell from their hands. Others raised their swords against him but weren't fully willing, or weren't able, to strike.

7. Even in this desperate situation, Josephus didn't lose his usual cleverness. Trusting in God's providence, he placed his life in danger in the following way:

"Since you have all decided to die," he said, "come, let us leave our deaths to the drawing of lots. The man chosen first will be killed by the man chosen second. Then the same order will continue through all of us. This way, none of us will die by his own hand. It would be unfair if, after everyone else was dead, the last man changed his mind and saved himself."

The men thought this plan was fair. Josephus persuaded them to settle the matter by lot, and he drew one of the lots for himself. The man who received the first lot exposed his neck to the man who had drawn the second, believing that Josephus would soon die with them. They thought death would be sweeter than life if Josephus died beside them.

By chance, or perhaps by God's providence, Josephus and one other man were left until the end. Josephus had no desire to be condemned by the lot. He also didn't want to stain his hands with the blood of his countryman if he were left last. So he persuaded the other man to trust him and remain alive with him.

8. In this way, Josephus escaped both the Roman war and the deadly conflict with his own men. Nicanor led him to Vespasian.

The Romans now gathered from every direction to see him. The crowd pressed around their general, and a great disturbance arose. Some celebrated because Josephus had been captured. Others threatened him, while still others pushed forward to see him more closely. Those farther away shouted that their enemy should be put to death. Those near him remembered the things he had done and were troubled by the sudden change in his fortune.

Even the Roman commanders who had hated Josephus relented when they saw him. Titus, above all, felt pity for him because of Josephus's courage and the patience he showed in suffering. Titus also thought about Josephus's age and remembered that he had been fighting only a short time earlier, while now he stood helpless in the hands of his enemies.

This made Titus think about the power of fortune, how quickly conditions change in war, and how no human position is secure. His feelings spread to many of the others, who also began to pity Josephus. Titus played an important part in persuading his father to spare him.

Vespasian still ordered that Josephus be guarded closely, as though he intended to send him to Nero very soon.

9. When Josephus heard this order, he said that he had something he wished to say to Vespasian in private. Everyone was ordered to leave except Titus and two of their friends. Josephus then said:

"Vespasian, you think you have captured Josephus. But I have come to you as the messenger of greater news. If God had not sent me to you, I would know the law of the Jews in this situation and what a commander should do when defeat comes. You plan to send me to Nero? Why? Are Nero's successors still alive, while the man who will replace them stands before you?

"You, Vespasian, are Caesar and emperor, and so is your son after you. Bind me more tightly and keep me for yourself. You are not only my master, but master of the land, the sea, and all humanity. I deserve to be guarded more carefully than I am now, so that I can be punished if I have spoken falsely about God."

Vespasian didn't believe him at first. He thought Josephus was using a clever trick to save his life. But before long, he became convinced that Josephus had spoken the truth. Vespasian began to believe that he would gain the empire, since God raised his hopes and other signs also pointed toward his future advancement.

Vespasian also discovered that Josephus had spoken the truth on other matters. One of the friends who had been present at the private meeting said to Josephus:

"I can't understand how you failed to warn the people of Jotapata that the city would fall. You also failed to predict that you yourself would be captured, unless what you are saying now is only a false claim meant to save you from the anger directed at you."

Josephus answered:

"I did warn the people of Jotapata that they would be captured on the forty-seventh day. I also predicted that the Romans would take me alive."

Vespasian privately questioned the captives about these predictions and found that Josephus had told the truth. He then began to believe Josephus's words about his own future.

Vespasian didn't free Josephus, but he gave him fine clothing and other valuable gifts. He treated him with great kindness and continued to do so. Titus also supported Josephus and helped secure the honors given to him.

CHAPTER 9

How Joppa Was Taken and Tiberias Was Given Up

On the fourth day of the month Panemus, called Tammuz by the Jews, Vespasian returned to Ptolemais. From there he went to Caesarea, the city on the coast. Caesarea was one of the greatest cities in Judea, and most of its people were Greeks. The citizens welcomed the Roman army and its commander with loud cheers and every kind of celebration. They did this partly because they favored the Romans, but mostly because they hated the people the Romans had defeated. For that reason, crowds gathered and shouted against Josephus, demanding that he be put to death. Vespasian said nothing in response, treating their request as the foolish demand of an unthinking crowd.

Vespasian stationed two legions at Caesarea for the winter because he saw that the city was well suited for winter quarters. He placed the Tenth and Fifth Legions at Scythopolis so that Caesarea would not have to support the whole army. Scythopolis was warm during the winter, though the summer heat there was suffocating because the city stood on a plain near the Sea of Galilee.

During this time, many people gathered at Joppa. Some had escaped from the enemy, while others had fled from cities the Romans had destroyed. Together, they rebuilt Joppa, which Cestius had left deserted, so that it could become a place of refuge. The surrounding country had been ruined by the war and could no longer support them, so they decided to take to the sea.

They built many ships for piracy and began attacking vessels near Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt. Because of them, no one could safely sail those waters. When Vespasian learned what they were planning, he sent infantry and cavalry against Joppa. The city had no guard that night. Still, the people inside realized that an attack was coming and became afraid. They didn't try to stop the Romans. Instead, they fled to their ships and spent the night at sea, beyond the reach of the Roman weapons.

Joppa was not naturally a safe harbor. Its shore was rough, and most of the coastline ran straight, except at the two ends, where the land curved inward. Deep cliffs stood there, along with large rocks that reached out into the sea. The marks of the chains said to have held Andromeda could also be seen there, offering proof of how old that famous story was.

The north wind struck the coast with great force, driving huge waves against the rocks and making the harbor more dangerous than the land the people had abandoned. As the people of Joppa floated on the sea, a violent wind rose in the morning. Sailors in that region called it the "black north wind." It smashed the ships against one another and drove some of them into the rocks. Others were pushed out toward the open sea as their crews struggled against the waves.

The people were afraid to come ashore because the coast was rocky and the Romans were waiting there. The waves rose so high that many were swept away. They had nowhere to escape and no way to save themselves. If they remained at sea, the wind drove them away or crushed their ships. If they came toward the city, the Romans drove them back.

Great cries rose as the ships struck one another. A terrible sound followed as they broke apart. Some people were buried beneath the waves, while others became trapped in the wreckage. A few decided that death by their own swords was easier than death at sea, so they killed themselves before the waves could drown them. Most were carried along by the water and smashed against the steep rocks. The sea became bloody for a great distance, and the shore was covered with bodies.

The Romans killed those who managed to reach land. In all, 4,200 bodies were thrown out of the sea. The Romans also entered the city without meeting any resistance and destroyed it completely.

Joppa was taken by the Romans twice within a short time. To keep the pirates from returning, Vespasian built a camp where the citadel had once stood. He left a unit of cavalry there, along with a small number of infantry. The infantry guarded the camp, while the cavalry raided the surrounding country and destroyed the nearby villages and smaller towns.

The troops carried out these orders. They swept through the countryside, killing people and laying the whole region waste day after day.

When news of Jotapata's fate reached Jerusalem, many people refused to believe it at first. The disaster seemed too great, and no eyewitness had survived to confirm what had happened. Not one person had escaped to deliver the news. Instead, word spread from place to place that the city had fallen, as bad news often does.

In time, the truth became known in the towns near Jotapata, and everyone realized that the report was true. Still, false details were added to the real story. People began saying that Josephus had been killed when the city fell, and Jerusalem was filled with sorrow.

Every house mourned those who had died, especially the families and friends of the fallen. The entire city mourned its commander. Some grieved for people who had lived beside them, some for relatives, some for friends, and others for their brothers. Everyone mourned Josephus. The sorrow continued for thirty days, and many people even hired mourners, along with flute players, to begin the sad songs for them.

As more information came out, people learned what had really happened at Jotapata. They also discovered that Josephus was not dead. He was alive and staying with the Romans, who treated him far better than they treated ordinary prisoners.

The people of Jerusalem became as angry with him as they had been friendly toward him when they thought he was dead. Some called him a coward. Others called him a deserter. The city filled with anger against him and with insults directed at him.

Their own suffering made their rage even stronger, and their defeats added fuel to it. Trouble, which usually teaches wise people to be careful, only pushed them toward greater danger. One disaster became the beginning of another. They decided to attack the Romans with even greater force, hoping to take revenge on Josephus by fighting Rome.

That was the condition of Jerusalem as new troubles began to fall upon it.

Vespasian wanted to visit the kingdom of Agrippa. Agrippa encouraged him to do so, partly because he hoped to entertain the Roman commander and his army as generously as his private resources allowed, and partly because he wanted Vespasian to correct the problems in his government.

Vespasian left the Caesarea on the coast and went to the city called Caesarea Philippi. He rested his army there for twenty days. King Agrippa held a feast for him, and Vespasian publicly gave thanks to God for the success of his campaigns.

Soon afterward, Vespasian learned that the people of Tiberias were eager for rebellion and that Taricheae had revolted. Both cities belonged to Agrippa's kingdom. Vespasian was convinced that the Jews everywhere had turned against their rulers, so he decided to march against the two cities, both to help Agrippa and to force the cities back into obedience.

He sent his son Titus to the other Caesarea to bring the army stationed there to Scythopolis, the largest city of the Decapolis and a place near Tiberias. Vespasian went there with three legions and waited for Titus to arrive.

He then set up camp thirty furlongs from Tiberias, at a station called Sennabris, where the rebels could easily see it. He sent Valerian, a cavalry officer, with fifty horsemen to speak peacefully with the people in the city and urge them to promise their loyalty. Vespasian had heard that most of the people wanted peace but that a group of rebels was forcing them to join the revolt and fight alongside them.

When Valerian reached the city wall, he dismounted and ordered his men to do the same. He didn't want the people to think they had come to fight. Before Valerian and the people could speak, however, the leading rebels made a sudden attack. Their commander was a man named Jesus, son of Shaphat, the chief leader of a band of robbers.

Valerian knew that he couldn't fight against the general's orders, even though he was confident he could win. He also knew that it was dangerous for a small group to fight a larger one, especially when the smaller group was unprepared and the larger group was ready. Surprised by the sudden attack, Valerian ran away on foot. Five of his men fled with him, leaving their horses behind.

Jesus took the horses into the city and celebrated as if he had captured them in battle, even though he had gained them through treachery.

The elders of the city and the most respected citizens feared what would happen next, so they fled to the Roman camp. They took their king with them, fell before Vespasian, and begged for mercy. They asked him not to punish the whole city for the madness of a few men. The people, they said, had always treated the Romans with respect and kindness.

They asked Vespasian to punish the leaders of the revolt, explaining that those men had kept watch over the city so closely that, although the citizens had long wanted to give the Romans their pledge of loyalty, they had never been able to do so.

Vespasian agreed to their request, even though he was angry with the entire city because the rebels had taken his horses. He showed mercy because he saw how much Agrippa cared about the city's people. Vespasian and Agrippa accepted the citizens' pledge of loyalty.

Jesus and his followers realized that they could no longer remain in Tiberias, so they fled to Taricheae. The next day, Vespasian sent Trajan with a group of cavalry to the citadel. He wanted to find out whether the whole population truly favored peace.

When Trajan learned that the people shared the same desire for peace as those who had come to plead with Vespasian, Vespasian brought the rest of his army to the city. The citizens opened the gates and greeted him with joyful shouts, calling him their savior and benefactor.

The army took a long time to enter because the gates were too narrow. Vespasian ordered the southern wall to be torn down, creating a wide passage for the soldiers. Even so, he commanded them not to steal or mistreat anyone, because he wanted to honor Agrippa. For the king's sake, he left the rest of the wall standing. Agrippa promised that the people would remain loyal to Rome in the future.

1. 1. In this way, Vespasian restored peace to Tiberias after the city had suffered so much from the revolt.

CHAPTER 10

How Taricheae Was Taken, With a Description of the Jordan River and the Country of Gennesareth

1

Vespasian now set up his camp between Tiberias and Taricheae. He strengthened it more than usual because he suspected he might have to remain there for a long time and fight a difficult war. All the rebels had gathered in Taricheae because they trusted the city's defenses and the lake beside it.

The people of the country called this lake the Lake of Gennesareth. Like Tiberias, Taricheae stood at the foot of a mountain. Josephus had fortified the city on every side that was not protected by the lake, though its walls were not as strong as those of Tiberias. Tiberias had been built at the beginning of the Jewish revolt, when Josephus had plenty of money and great authority. Taricheae had received only what remained of his resources.

The people of Taricheae had also prepared many boats on the lake. If they were defeated on land, they planned to escape by water. The boats were equipped well enough for a sea battle.

While the Romans were building a wall around their camp, Jesus and his men were not frightened by their numbers or by the order of their work. They made a sudden attack. At the first charge, they scattered the men who were building the wall and tore down everything that had been constructed. But when the Roman soldiers gathered their weapons and moved toward them, the rebels withdrew before suffering much harm.

The Romans chased them as far as their boats. The rebels pushed out onto the lake, keeping far enough away to throw weapons at the Romans. Then they dropped anchor and brought the boats together in a battle line. From there, they attacked the Romans on shore.

When Vespasian heard that a large crowd had gathered on the plain in front of the city, he sent his son Titus with six hundred chosen horsemen to scatter them.

2

When Titus saw how numerous the enemy was, he sent word to his father that he needed more troops. Still, he noticed that many of his horsemen were eager to fight before reinforcements arrived. He also saw that some of them were secretly troubled by the great number of Jews.

Titus stood where everyone could hear him and said:

"My brave Romans, I should begin by reminding you who you are and what nation you belong to. You must know who we are and who stands against us. No part of the inhabited world has escaped Roman power. The Jews have already been defeated, yet they still refuse to give up. It would be a shame for us to grow weak because we have enjoyed success while they remain firm in their misfortune.

"I see your courage, and I rejoice in it. Still, I fear that the enemy's numbers may frighten some of you in secret. Let anyone who feels that fear remember again who we are and who our enemies are.

"These Jews are bold and have little fear of death, but they have no order and little skill in war. They are more like a mob than an army. I don't need to speak at length about our training and discipline. That is why Romans practice war during times of peace. When battle comes, we don't have to compare our numbers with those of the enemy. What would be the use of our constant training if we still had to match the number of people who have never learned how to fight?

"Think about the advantages we have. We are well armed, while many of them have almost no weapons. We are mounted, while they fight on foot. We have a skilled commander, while they have no proper leader. These advantages make us many times stronger than our actual number, while their weaknesses reduce the value of their large army.

"Victory in war doesn't come from numbers alone. It comes from courage, even when only a few are fighting. A small force can be placed in order easily, and its men can help one another. An army that is too large often harms itself more than its enemy.

"The Jews are led by boldness and recklessness, which are the children of madness. Those passions look impressive when they succeed, but the smallest defeat puts them out. We are led by courage, obedience, and strength. These qualities help us in good fortune, and they don't leave us when fortune turns against us.

"Our reasons for fighting are also greater than theirs. They risk their lives for freedom and their country. What greater reason can we have than glory? After gaining power over the inhabited world, we must not allow the Jews to stand against us.

"Remember this too: we aren't in danger of suffering a disaster from which we cannot recover. Many men are ready to help us, and they are close at hand. Yet we can win this victory ourselves. We should prevent the troops my father is sending from arriving, so the success will belong to us alone and bring us greater honor.

"I believe this is the moment when my father, you, and I will all be tested. We will see whether my father is worthy of his former victories, whether I am truly his son, and whether you are truly my soldiers. My father is known for winning. As for me, I couldn't bear to return to him if the enemy captured me.

"How will you escape shame if you show less courage than your commander when he goes first into danger? You know that I will enter the fight before you and make the first attack. Don't abandon me. Trust that God will help my charge.

"Know this before we begin: we will have a better chance of victory if we fight at close range instead of keeping our distance."

3

Titus' speech filled the soldiers with a fierce desire to fight. Trajan had already arrived with four hundred horsemen, and the others were unhappy because they feared the victory would no longer belong to them alone.

Vespasian also sent Antonius and Silo with two thousand archers. He ordered them to seize the mountain across from the city and drive away anyone defending the walls. They carried out their orders and stopped the Jews from sending help in that direction.

Titus led his horsemen against the enemy. The others followed with a great shout. They spread across the plain until their line was as wide as that of the Jewish force facing them. This made them appear far more numerous than they really were.

The Jews were shocked by the sudden attack and by the Roman discipline, but they resisted for a short time. Then the Roman horsemen struck them with their long spears and trampled them under their horses' feet. Many were killed on every side. The rest broke apart and ran toward the city as quickly as they could.

Titus chased the men at the rear and killed them. He attacked others while they were gathered together. Some he met as they reached the city's entrance and pierced with his spear. Others fell over one another, and he rode over them. He blocked the road to the wall and drove them back onto the plain.

At last, the Jews forced their way through by sheer weight of numbers. They escaped the Roman attack and ran into the city.

4

A violent quarrel then broke out inside Taricheae. The city's own inhabitants, who owned property there, had never wanted to fight. After their defeat, they were even less willing to continue the war. But the foreigners living in the city were numerous, and they forced the inhabitants to keep fighting.

The city filled with shouting and confusion as the two groups turned against each other.

Titus heard the uproar because he was close to the wall. He called to his soldiers:

"Fellow soldiers, this is the moment. Why should we wait when God is handing the Jews over to us? Take the victory that has been placed before you. Can't you hear the noise they are making? The men who escaped us are now fighting among themselves.

"We can take the city if we move quickly. But speed alone won't be enough. We must also accept the danger and show courage. Great things are never accomplished without risk.

"We must stop the Jews from joining together again, because necessity will soon force them to do so. We must also prevent our own reinforcements from reaching us. If we defeat this great crowd with only the soldiers now here, the victory will belong to us alone."

5

As soon as Titus finished speaking, he mounted his horse and rode quickly down to the lake. He followed the shore and entered the city before anyone else. The other soldiers entered soon after him.

The men on the walls were terrified by the boldness of the attack. No one dared to fight Titus or stop him. They abandoned their defense of the city.

Some of the men who had followed Jesus fled into the countryside. Others ran down to the lake and attacked the Romans directly. Some were killed while trying to climb into their boats. Others died while chasing those who had already escaped by water.

A great slaughter also took place inside the city. The foreign residents who had not yet fled resisted the Romans and were killed. The native inhabitants did not fight. They hoped Titus would spare them because they had not agreed to the war and had taken no part in starting the revolt.

Titus killed the leaders of the rebellion, then stopped the slaughter out of pity for the local people. Those who had escaped to the lake saw that the city was lost and sailed as far away from the Romans as they could.

6

Titus sent one of his horsemen to tell Vespasian what had happened. Vespasian was overjoyed by the news, both because of his son's courage and because of the success he had achieved. He believed that most of the war was now over.

Vespasian went to Taricheae himself. He placed soldiers around the city and ordered them to prevent anyone from slipping out. Anyone who tried to escape was to be killed.

The next day, Vespasian went down to the lake. He ordered boats to be prepared so they could pursue the men who had escaped by ship. The boats were made ready quickly because the area had plenty of building materials and many skilled workers.

7

The Lake of Gennesareth takes its name from the country around it. It is forty furlongs wide and one hundred forty furlongs long. Its water is fresh and pleasant to drink. It is clearer than the thick water found in many other marshy places. The lake is clean, and its shores end in sand.

The water has a mild quality when drawn from the lake. It is gentler than river or spring water, yet it is always colder than one would expect in such a warm and open place. When left outside in the summer, it becomes as cold as the snow that people in the country are accustomed to make at night.

The lake contains several kinds of fish. They differ from fish in other waters both in taste and appearance. The Jordan River divides the lake into two parts.

People believe that Panium is the source of the Jordan, but the river actually flows there by a hidden course from a place called Phiala. Phiala lies on the road to Trachonitis, about one hundred twenty furlongs from Caesarea. It is a short distance from the road on the right side.

The name Phiala means "bowl," and it fits the place because the spring is round like a wheel. Its water always reaches the edge without sinking or overflowing.

For a long time, no one knew that Phiala was the true source of the Jordan. The truth was discovered during the rule of Philip, who was tetrarch of Trachonitis. Philip threw straw into Phiala, and it later appeared at Panium, which the people had once believed was the river's source.

Panium itself is naturally beautiful. Agrippa improved it with royal generosity and paid for its decoration.

The Jordan rises visibly from the cave at Panium. It passes through the marshes and swamps of Lake Semechonitis. After flowing another one hundred twenty furlongs, it passes by the city of Julias and then through the center of the Lake of Gennesareth. From there, it crosses a long stretch of desert before finally emptying into the Lake Asphaltitis.

8

The country across from the lake is also called Gennesareth. It is as remarkable for its beauty as it is for its rich soil. Almost every kind of tree grows there, and the people plant many different varieties.

The climate is so well balanced that trees requiring very different conditions grow side by side. Walnut trees, which need cold air, grow there in great numbers. Palm trees, which prefer heat, also thrive. Fig trees and olive trees grow nearby, even though they need a milder climate.

This country seems to bring together plants that nature usually keeps apart. The seasons appear to compete over it, as though each one claims the land for itself. The country produces many kinds of fruit beyond what anyone would expect, and it keeps them fresh for a long time.

Grapes and figs grow there for ten months of the year. The other fruits ripen throughout the rest of the year. The mild climate helps, and the land is also watered by a very fertile spring.

The people of the country call the spring Capharnaum. Some have thought it was a branch of the Nile because it produces the same kind of fish, called the coracin, that is found in the lake near Alexandria.

The country stretches along the shore of the lake for thirty furlongs and is twenty furlongs wide. This is the nature of Gennesareth.

9

When the boats were ready, Vespasian placed enough soldiers aboard to overpower the men on the lake. Then he set out after them.

The rebels had nowhere to escape. They couldn't reach the shore because the Romans controlled the land and were fighting against them there. They also couldn't face the Romans in open battle on the water. Their boats were small and had been built for piracy, not for war. They were too weak to fight Vespasian's vessels, and they carried too few sailors to approach the Romans, who attacked them in large numbers.

The rebels sailed around the Roman boats and sometimes came close to them. When they stayed at a distance, they threw stones. When they drew near, they tried to fight. In both cases, they suffered more damage than they caused.

Their stones struck the Roman soldiers' armor and made a loud sound, but they did little harm. The Roman weapons reached the rebels themselves. When the rebels came close enough to attack, the Romans injured them before they could do anything to the Roman ships. Many rebels and their boats were dragged beneath the water together.

When the rebels tried to board the Roman vessels, the Romans pierced them with their long spears. At times, Roman soldiers jumped into the enemy boats with swords in their hands and killed everyone inside. When some rebels came against the Roman ships, the soldiers seized them around the waist and destroyed both the men and the boats that carried them.

Those who fell into the water were killed in several ways. If they raised their heads above the surface, the Romans struck them with arrows or caught them with boat hooks. If they tried to swim toward the enemy, the Romans cut off their heads or their hands.

The rebels were destroyed everywhere. The survivors were driven toward the shore while the Roman ships surrounded them from the water. Many were killed by arrows as they tried to land. Roman soldiers then left their boats and killed many more on the shore.

The lake became red with blood and was covered with dead bodies. Not one of the rebels escaped.

The following days brought a terrible sight and a terrible smell across the country. The shores were filled with broken ships and swollen corpses. The bodies were heated by the sun and began to rot, filling the air with corruption. The suffering was so great that even those who hated the Jews and had helped cause their misery felt pity for them.

That was the end of the battle on the lake. The number killed, including those who had died in the city, was six thousand five hundred.

10

After the battle, Vespasian sat on his judgment seat at Taricheae. He wanted to separate the foreigners from the city's original inhabitants because the foreigners appeared to have started the revolt.

He discussed with his commanders whether the native inhabitants should be spared. The commanders argued against it. They said that if these people were released, they would have no homes and would become dangerous. They might even force the people to whom they fled to fight against the Romans.

Vespasian admitted that the inhabitants did not deserve to be saved. He also believed that if they were allowed to leave, they would use their freedom against the Romans.

Still, he wondered how they should be killed. If he had them executed at Taricheae, the people of the country would become his enemies. They would never accept the killing of so many people who had come to him as suppliants. Vespasian also couldn't bring himself to break his promise after assuring them that their lives would be spared.

His advisers finally persuaded him. They claimed that killing Jews could not be considered a crime and that practical advantage should come before mercy when the two could not be joined together.

Vespasian gave the prisoners a deliberately unclear permission to leave. He allowed them to take only the road leading to Tiberias. Believing what they wanted to believe, the prisoners set out safely with their possessions.

The Romans took control of every road leading away from that route. They allowed no one to leave it and shut the entire group inside Tiberias.

Vespasian then came to the city and ordered all the prisoners to gather in the stadium. He commanded his soldiers to kill the old men and everyone else who was too weak to be useful. Twelve hundred people were killed.

From the young men, Vespasian chose six thousand of the strongest and sent them to Nero to work on the Isthmus. He sold the rest as slaves. Their number was thirty thousand four hundred, not counting those he gave to King Agrippa.

Vespasian allowed Agrippa to do whatever he wanted with the prisoners from his own kingdom. Agrippa sold them as slaves as well.

The remaining prisoners came from Trachonitis, Gaulanitis, Hippos, and Gadara. Most of them were rebels and fugitives. They were people of such disgraceful character that they preferred war to peace.

These prisoners were captured on the eighth day of the month Gorpiaeus, which the Jews call Elul.

PREFACE

 

Book 1

Book 2

Book 3

Book 4

Book 5

 

Book 6

 

Book 7