The Jewish War – Book 4

BOOK IV

Containing the Interval of About One Year

From the Siege of Gamala to Titus's Arrival to Besiege Jerusalem

CHAPTER 1

The Siege and Capture of Gamala

1. After the Romans captured Jotapata, all the Galileans who had rebelled against them surrendered again when Taricheae was conquered. The Romans then took possession of every fortress and city except Gischala, the people who had seized Mount Tabor, and Gamala, a city opposite Taricheae on the other side of the lake.

Gamala, along with Sogana and Seleucia, lay near the borders of Agrippa's kingdom. All three belonged to Gaulanitis. Sogana was in Upper Gaulanitis, while Gamala was in Lower Gaulanitis. Seleucia stood beside Lake Semechouitis, which was thirty furlongs wide and sixty furlongs long. Its marshes stretched as far as Daphne, a beautiful place with springs that supplied water to what was called Little Jordan. This stream flowed beneath the temple of the golden calf and joined the Great Jordan.

At the beginning of the revolt against Rome, Agrippa had made agreements with the people of Sogana and Seleucia. Gamala, however, refused to join them. The people trusted in the natural strength of their city, which was even harder to take than Jotapata.

Gamala stood on a rough ridge high in the mountains. A narrow section ran through its middle. The ground rose at the front, then dropped on both sides, making the city resemble a camel. That shape gave the city its name, although the people of the region did not pronounce it exactly.

The sides and front of the city were cut off by steep slopes that ended in deep valleys. The rear, where the city joined the mountain, was easier to climb, but the people had cut an angled ditch there, making that approach difficult as well. Houses covered the straight slope, packed closely together. The city hung so sharply over the mountain that it looked ready to fall upon itself.

Gamala faced south. Its southern mountain rose to a great height and served as a citadel for the city. Above it was a deep precipice without any wall around it. A spring also rose within the city walls, at the farthest edge of the settlement.

2. Gamala was already difficult to capture by nature, but Josephus had made it stronger by building a wall around it, digging ditches, and cutting underground passages. Its people were more confident than the people of Jotapata because of the city's location, although Gamala had far fewer fighting men.

They trusted the strength of the place so completely that they believed no army could overpower them. Many refugees had crowded into the city because they thought it was safe. With their numbers increased in this way, they had resisted the forces sent by Agrippa for seven months.

3. Vespasian left Emmaus, where he had last made camp before Tiberias, and marched against Gamala. Emmaus means "a warm bath," and the place had a spring of warm water that people used for healing.

Gamala's position made it impossible for Vespasian to surround the whole city with troops. He placed guards wherever the ground allowed it and seized the mountain overlooking the city. While the legions followed their usual practice and fortified their camp on that mountain, Vespasian began building embankments below the city, on the eastern side, where its tallest tower stood.

The Fifteenth Legion made camp there. The Fifth Legion took position opposite the middle of the city, while the Tenth Legion filled in the ditches and valleys.

At that time, King Agrippa came near the walls and tried to persuade the defenders to surrender. One of the slingers on the wall struck him in the right elbow with a stone. His own men quickly surrounded him and carried him away.

The Romans were angered by what had happened to the king, and they were also afraid for themselves. They reasoned that men who showed such hatred toward one of their own people, especially a man who urged them to do only what would benefit them, might commit every kind of cruelty against foreigners and enemies.

4. The Romans finished their embankments quickly. They had many workers, and their soldiers were accustomed to such labor. They then brought up their siege machines.

Chares and Joseph, the most powerful men in Gamala, arranged the armed men for battle. The people were already afraid, since they knew the city could not hold out much longer without enough water and other supplies. Still, their leaders encouraged them and led them onto the wall.

For a time, the defenders drove away the soldiers who were bringing up the machines. But when the Romans began throwing darts and stones at them, they withdrew into the city. The Romans then brought battering rams against three different places and shook the walls until they broke.

With trumpets sounding, armor clashing, and the soldiers shouting, the Romans rushed through the broken sections. The people of Gamala attacked them as soon as they entered. For a time, they stopped the Romans from advancing and drove them back with great courage.

The Romans were surrounded and struck from every side by the larger number of defenders. They were forced to retreat toward the upper part of the city. The people of Gamala then turned and attacked the Romans who had entered against them, driving them down toward the lower streets.

The Romans were trapped by the narrow and difficult ground. They could not push back the defenders above them, and they could not escape the soldiers who were still forcing their way into the city. They fled into the low houses, but the houses were soon packed with soldiers and could not bear their weight. One house collapsed, shaking down many others beneath it. Those houses fell in turn upon the people below.

A great number of Romans died in the ruins. Even after seeing the buildings give way, many soldiers had no choice but to jump onto the roofs. Some were crushed beneath the falling houses. Others escaped the wreckage with broken or missing limbs. Many more suffocated in the clouds of dust rising from the ruins.

The people of Gamala believed God had come to their aid. They ignored the losses among their own people and continued attacking the Romans, driving them onto the roofs. The streets were sharp, narrow, and difficult to cross. The Romans stumbled and fell constantly, while the defenders threw stones and darts at them.

The ruins gave the people plenty of stones. The dead Romans supplied them with iron weapons. The defenders pulled swords from the bodies and used them to kill the wounded. Many soldiers who fell from the roofs stabbed themselves and died that way.

Those who were pushed back could barely escape. They did not know the streets, and the dust was so thick that they could not recognize one another. They wandered through the crowd and fell dead among their own men.

5. The Romans who found a way out of the city withdrew. Vespasian, however, remained among those who were in the greatest danger. He was distressed by the sight of the city's buildings collapsing upon his army and forgot to protect himself.

Before he realized how far he had gone, he had moved toward the highest part of the city. Only a few men remained with him. His son Titus was not there, because he had been sent to Syria to meet Mucianus.

Vespasian did not think it honorable or safe to flee. He remembered the deeds of his youth and gathered his courage as if driven by divine inspiration. He covered himself and the men with him with their shields. Together they formed a testudo, holding their shields over their bodies and armor.

The defenders rushed down from the highest part of the city, but Vespasian and his men stood against them. He showed no fear at the number of the attackers or the weapons they threw. He endured their assault until they noticed the extraordinary courage within him and began attacking with less force.

Only then did Vespasian withdraw. He kept facing the defenders and did not turn his back until he had passed outside the city walls.

Many Romans died in the battle. One of them was Ebutius, a decurion known for his courage in this fight and in earlier battles. He had caused great harm to the Jews on many occasions.

A centurion named Gallus was caught in the confusion with ten soldiers. The group secretly slipped into a man's house. From there, Gallus heard the people at supper discussing what they planned to do against the Romans, or what they meant to do among themselves. The man and his companions were Syrians.

Gallus rose during the night and cut the throats of all of them. He and his soldiers then escaped and returned to the Roman army.

6. Vespasian encouraged his army, which had been badly shaken by its defeat. The soldiers had never suffered such a disaster before, and they were ashamed that they had abandoned their general while he was surrounded by danger.

Vespasian said nothing about that part of the affair. He did not want to sound as though he were complaining. Instead, he told them:

"We must face bravely whatever happens in war. War by its nature means that victory cannot come without some loss of our own. Fortune is always changing. We have killed many tens of thousands of Jews, and now we have paid our own small share to fate.

"Weak people become too proud after success, while cowards become too frightened by failure. The change from one condition to the other can happen quickly. The best soldier is the one who keeps a clear mind during misfortune. He remains steady and works to regain what has been lost.

"What happened here was not caused by our weakness, nor did the Jews win because they were stronger than we are. The ground gave them the advantage and caused our defeat.

"After the enemy withdrew to the highest and strongest part of the city, you should have held back. You should not have exposed yourselves by climbing to the top. Once you had taken the lower part of the city, you should have forced those above to come down and fight in open ground.

"Instead, you rushed after victory without thinking about your own safety. Such careless eagerness does not belong to Roman soldiers. We accomplish our goals through skill and discipline. The Jews depend on the opposite approach.

"We must return to our own courage. We should be angry about this misfortune, not defeated by it. Each man must find comfort in his own actions. By fighting, he can avenge those who died and punish the men who killed them.

"As for me, I will continue to go before you against the enemy, just as I have done. In every battle, I will be the first to enter and the last to leave."

7. Vespasian's speech restored the courage of his army. The people of Gamala also took heart for a short time because of their unexpected success.

But when they considered their situation, they saw that no agreement with the Romans was possible. They had no way to escape, and their supplies were already running low. Their spirits fell, although they still did everything they could to survive.

The strongest men guarded the broken parts of the wall. The weaker men guarded the sections that remained standing. When the Romans raised new embankments and tried to enter the city again, many people escaped through steep valleys where no guards had been placed. Others fled through underground passages.

Those who feared capture and remained in the city died from hunger. The available food had been collected from every part of Gamala and saved for the soldiers.

8. This was the condition of the people of Gamala. During the siege, Vespasian also turned his attention to Mount Tabor, which had been seized by a group of rebels.

Mount Tabor stood between the Great Plain and Scythopolis. Its summit rose thirty furlongs high, and its northern side was difficult to climb. The top formed a plain twenty-six furlongs across and was surrounded by a wall.

Josephus had built that wall in forty days. He had also supplied the mountain with other materials and arranged for water to be brought up from below. The people who lived there had depended only on rainwater.

A large number of people had gathered on the mountain, so Vespasian sent Placidus with six hundred horsemen. Placidus could not climb the mountain, so he offered peace to many of the people there. He promised them safety by giving them his right hand and said he would speak on their behalf.

They came down, but both sides had secret plans. Placidus spoke kindly because he intended to seize them once they reached the plain. The Jews came down because they planned to attack him when he was unprepared.

Placidus's plan, however, defeated theirs. When the Jews began to fight, he pretended to flee. They chased the Romans a long way across the plain. Then Placidus ordered his horsemen to turn around.

The Romans attacked the Jews, killed many of them, and blocked the retreat of the rest. The survivors could not return to the mountain and fled toward Jerusalem. The people who lived in the surrounding region then made terms with Placidus. Their water had run out, so they surrendered both the mountain and themselves to him.

9. Among the people of Gamala, the boldest escaped and hid, while the weaker people died of hunger. The fighters continued to defend the city until the twenty-second day of the month Hyperberetmus, called Tisri.

During the morning watch, three soldiers from the Fifteenth Legion reached a tall tower near their position. They dug beneath it without making a sound. The guards did not notice them when they approached at night, and they did not hear them while they worked underneath the tower.

The soldiers avoided making noise as they entered. After removing five of the tower's strongest stones, they quickly withdrew. The tower suddenly collapsed with a tremendous crash, carrying its guards down with it.

The guards at the other positions were thrown into confusion and ran away. The Romans killed many of those who tried to resist. Joseph was among the dead. A dart struck him as he ran across the broken section of the wall.

The people inside the city were terrified by the noise. They ran in every direction, believing that the entire Roman army had entered at once. Chares was sick and under a physician's care. The fear he felt made his illness worse, and he died.

The Romans still remembered their earlier defeat and did not enter the city until the twenty-third day of that month.

10. Titus had now returned. Angry about the losses the Romans had suffered while he was away, he took two hundred picked horsemen and some infantry into the city. They entered quietly.

The guards noticed them and raised an alarm. The people seized their weapons, and word of Titus's entrance quickly spread throughout Gamala. Some people grabbed their children and wives and dragged them toward the citadel while crying out in grief. Others went to meet Titus and were killed one after another.

Those who could not reach the citadel had nowhere to go. They ran into the Roman guards, while the cries of the dying filled the city. Blood flowed down from the upper streets and covered the lower parts of Gamala.

Vespasian then came to Titus's aid against the people who had fled to the citadel. He brought the entire army with him.

The upper part of the city was surrounded by rocks and difficult to climb. It rose to a great height and was crowded with people on every side. Precipices protected the defenders. They killed many Romans who climbed toward them, and they wounded others with darts and large stones thrown down from above.

The defenders stood so high that the Roman darts could barely reach them. Then a violent storm came against them and helped destroy them. The wind carried the Roman darts toward the Jews, sent the weapons they threw back in their direction, and blew the rest away at an angle.

The Jews could not stand securely on the precipices because of the force of the wind. They had no steady ground beneath them, and they could not see the Romans climbing toward them. The Romans reached the top, surrounded the defenders, and killed some before they could prepare themselves. Others were killed while trying to surrender.

The Romans remembered the men who had died during their earlier attempt to enter the city, and their anger grew stronger. Many of the people surrounded on every side saw no hope of escape. They threw their children, their wives, and themselves from the precipices into the valley below. Near the citadel, the valley had been hollowed out to a great depth.

The Romans killed four thousand people. Five thousand more died by throwing themselves from the heights. No one escaped except two women, the daughters of Philip.

Philip was the son of Jacimus, a respected man who had once commanded King Agrippa's army. The two women survived because they hid from the Romans while the city was being taken. Otherwise, the Romans spared no one, not even infants. Many children were thrown down from the citadel.

Gamala was captured on the twenty-third day of Hyperberetmus, or Tisri. The city had first rebelled on the twenty-fourth day of Gorpieus, or Elul.

CHAPTER 2

The Surrender of Gischala, While John Escapes to Jerusalem

1

The only place left to capture in Galilee was the small city of Gischala. Most of its people wanted peace. They were farmers who spent their lives cultivating the land and caring for its crops.

Still, many robbers had joined them. These men had already been corrupted and had worked their way into the city. Some of the leading citizens had also fallen into the same corruption. John, the son of Levi, had drawn them into rebellion and encouraged them to continue it.

John was a clever and deceitful man who could take on many different appearances. He was quick to expect great things, yet skilled at finding ways to gain what he wanted. Everyone knew that he loved war because it gave him a chance to rise to power. The rebellious people of Gischala followed his direction.

Because of them, the people who had been ready to send ambassadors and surrender began waiting for the Romans in battle formation instead. Vespasian sent Titus against them with one thousand horsemen. He moved the Tenth Legion to Scythopolis, then returned to Caesarea with the other two legions.

Vespasian wanted his soldiers to recover after their long and difficult campaign. He knew that the cities there had plenty of food and supplies, which would restore their strength before the harder work ahead. Jerusalem had not yet been taken. It was the royal city, the chief city of the whole nation, and the place where those who had escaped from the fighting in other areas had gathered.

Jerusalem was also naturally strong. Its walls made Vespasian greatly concerned, and he believed the men inside were so brave and determined that defeating them would be difficult even without the city's defenses. For this reason, he prepared and trained his soldiers in advance, just as athletes train before entering a contest.

2

When Titus rode out to Gischala, he saw that he could easily capture the city in a first assault. He also knew that if he took it by force, his soldiers would kill the people without mercy.

Titus had already seen enough bloodshed, and he felt pity for the greater part of the population. If the city were attacked, the innocent would perish along with the guilty. He preferred, therefore, that Gischala surrender on terms.

When he saw that the walls were filled with the rebellious men, Titus called out to them:

"I can't understand what you hope to gain by standing alone against the Romans. Every other city has already been taken. You have seen cities with much stronger defenses than yours fall in a single attack. Those who trusted themselves to the protection of Rome, which I now offer you, are living safely on their own land.

"As long as you hoped to recover your freedom, you could be forgiven for resisting. But now that you see such hopes are impossible, continuing your opposition is inexcusable. If you refuse these humane terms and the protection I offer, you will learn what kind of war the Romans can wage. We won't spare anyone, and you will soon discover that your wall is worth very little when our engines begin to strike it.

"By trusting in that wall, you show yourselves to be the only people in Galilee who are still acting like arrogant slaves and prisoners."

3

None of the ordinary people dared to answer Titus. They couldn't even climb onto the wall, because the robbers had taken control of it. Those same men guarded the gates so that no one could leave to discuss surrender, and so that no Roman horsemen could enter the city.

John sent Titus this reply:

"As for me, I'm willing to listen to your terms. I will either persuade those who refuse them or force them to accept. But you should respect the law of the Jews and allow us to observe this day, the seventh day of the week. On that day, our law forbids us not only to move our weapons but even to discuss peace.

"The Romans know that the seventh day is a time when we stop all work. Anyone who forces us to break the law on that day is just as guilty as those who are forced to break it. This delay won't harm you. Why would anyone try to do something during the night unless they intended to escape? You can prevent that by placing your camp around the city.

"We would consider it a great kindness if you didn't force us to violate the laws of our nation. If you truly plan to offer us peace without being asked, then it would be right for you to preserve the laws of the people you intend to save."

John used this argument as a trick. He wasn't concerned about honoring the seventh day. He feared that the city would be captured and that its people would abandon him. His only hope of staying alive was to use that night to escape.

Yet this happened by the will of God, who preserved John so that he could later help bring destruction upon Jerusalem. It was also by God's will that Titus accepted this excuse and delayed his attack. Titus moved his camp farther from the city and placed it at Cydessa.

Cydessa was a strong village on the Mediterranean coast belonging to the Tyrians. Its people had always hated the Jews and made war against them. The village had a large population and strong defenses, making it a suitable place for enemies of the Jewish nation.

4

During the night, John saw that no Roman guards had been placed around the city. He seized the opportunity at once. Taking the armed men who were with him, along with many others who had little to lose, he fled toward Jerusalem. He also brought their wives and children with him.

John was in a hurry and feared being captured or killed, yet he still took a large crowd of women and children out of the city. They traveled about twenty furlongs before he left them behind and continued on his own journey.

The people who were abandoned began to cry out in grief. The farther they moved from their own people, the closer they believed they were coming to the enemy. They frightened themselves with the thought that their captors were already near. At every sound they made during their hurried escape, they turned around as if the Romans were right behind them.

Many lost their way. Those who rushed forward in their eagerness to escape knocked others down. The women and children suffered terribly. Some wives and relatives found the courage to call their husbands and family members back. With bitter cries, they begged them to wait.

But John shouted that they should save themselves and keep running. He told them that if the Romans captured the people they left behind, the Romans would punish them for it. His words won the crowd over, and the people scattered. Each ran as quickly as he could, some faster and some slower than the rest.

5

The next day, Titus came to the wall to complete the agreement. The people opened the gates and went out to meet him with their wives and children. They shouted for joy as if Titus were their benefactor and had rescued the city from captivity.

They told him that John had escaped and begged him to spare them. They also asked him to enter the city and punish the men who had supported the rebellion.

Titus didn't ignore their requests, but his first concern was to pursue John. He sent some of his horsemen after him, but they couldn't catch him. John had already reached Jerusalem.

The horsemen killed six thousand of the women and children who had fled with John. They brought nearly three thousand others back with them. Titus was furious that John, who had deceived him, had escaped punishment. Still, he had enough prisoners and enough of the rebellious faction in the city to satisfy his anger.

Titus entered Gischala while the people welcomed him with joyful shouts. He ordered the soldiers to tear down a small section of the wall, as was done with a city captured in war. He then restrained the men who had disturbed the city, using threats rather than executions.

Titus believed that if he tried to identify every person who deserved punishment, many innocent people would be accused because of private hatred and personal quarrels. It was better to leave a guilty person afraid of punishment than to destroy an innocent person along with him. Fear might teach the guilty to act wisely, and forgiveness might make him ashamed of his former crimes. But once an innocent person had been killed, the mistake could never be corrected.

Titus placed a garrison in the city to protect it. The soldiers would restrain those who still wanted rebellion and give greater safety to those who preferred peace.

In this way, all Galilee was taken, though the Romans had to endure much hardship before they finally brought it under their control.

CHAPTER 3

Concerning John of Gischala, the Zealots, and the High Priest Ananus; and How the Jews Turned Against One Another in Jerusalem

1

When John entered Jerusalem, the whole city was in an uproar. Ten thousand people gathered around each of the fugitives who had come with him, asking what disasters had taken place outside the city. Their breathing was short, heated, and hurried, clearly showing the distress they had suffered. Still, they spoke proudly despite their misfortune. They claimed they hadn't fled from the Romans, but had come to Jerusalem so they could fight them with less danger.

They said it would have been foolish and useless to risk their lives defending Gischala and other weak towns. Their weapons and courage, they argued, should be saved for Jerusalem, the capital of their nation. Yet when the people heard that Gischala had been captured, and that John's followers had left the city in what they called an orderly retreat, many understood that it had really been a flight. When they learned that some of their people had been taken prisoner, they were thrown into great confusion and began to fear that the same thing would soon happen to them.

John himself showed little concern for the people he had abandoned. Instead, he went through the crowds, urging everyone to go to war and promising them victory. He insisted that the Romans were in a weak condition and praised his own strength. He mocked those who knew little about war, saying that even if the Romans grew wings, they could never fly over Jerusalem's walls. After all, he said, they had faced such difficulty capturing the villages of Galilee and had broken their siege engines against those towns.

2

John's speeches corrupted many of the young men and filled them with confidence for the war. The older and wiser people, however, could see what was coming. Not one of them failed to understand that the city was already heading toward ruin, and they mourned as if its destruction had already taken place.

The people who had come from the countryside were already divided before the revolt in Jerusalem began. Titus went from Gischala to Caesarea, while Vespasian traveled from Caesarea to Jamnia and Azotus and captured both cities. After placing garrisons there, Vespasian returned with many people who had surrendered to him after he promised to spare their lives.

Disorder and civil war had also broken out in every city. Those who were safe from the Romans turned their hands against one another. A bitter struggle grew between those who wanted war and those who wanted peace. At first, the conflict entered private homes, where families could no longer agree. Then even those who had once loved one another most began to cast aside every restraint. Each person joined with others who shared the same opinion, and groups began openly opposing one another.

Revolts broke out everywhere. The young men who wanted change and war were bold enough to overpower the older and wiser people. In every place, the people first turned to robbery. Then they gathered into bands and began plundering the countryside. In cruelty and injustice, the Jews became no different from the Romans. In fact, it seemed easier to be destroyed by the Romans than by their own people.

3

The Roman garrisons stationed in the cities did little to help the suffering people. Some of the soldiers were unwilling to take on such trouble, while others hated the Jewish nation. The bands of robbers continued plundering the countryside until their leaders, satisfied with what they had taken, gathered their followers from every direction and formed one great company of criminals.

Together, they entered Jerusalem, which had now become a city without a governor. As had long been the custom, the city welcomed every member of the nation without asking where he came from or what he had done. The people assumed that those arriving in such large numbers had come out of loyalty and to help defend the city.

But these men helped bring about Jerusalem's destruction. They were a useless crowd, consuming the food supplies that might otherwise have fed the soldiers. They also added to the city's revolt and famine. Instead of strengthening Jerusalem, they drained its resources and increased its troubles.

4

Other robbers came in from the countryside and joined the men already in the city. These newcomers were even worse than the first group, and they left no form of cruelty untouched. They measured their courage not only by the amount they could steal, but also by the number of people they could murder.

They didn't kill only at night, or in secret, or only people of little importance. They committed their crimes openly in broad daylight, beginning with the city's most prominent men.

The first person they seized was Antipas, a member of the royal family and the most powerful man in Jerusalem. The public treasury had been placed under his care. They arrested him and confined him. Next they seized Levias, another important man, along with Sophas, the son of Raguel. Both of these men also belonged to the royal family. The robbers treated the leading men from the countryside in the same way.

Their actions filled the people with terror. Everyone stopped thinking about anything except personal safety, just as people do when a city has already been captured in war.

5

The robbers weren't satisfied simply to imprison the men they had seized. They didn't think it was safe to keep them alive for long. These men were powerful, had large families, and had relatives who might seek revenge. The robbers also feared that the people might be angered by such unjust treatment and rise against them.

So they decided to kill their prisoners. They sent John, the most bloodthirsty of them all, to carry out the murders. In the language of the country, this man was also called the son of Dorcas. Ten other men went with him into the prison, their swords drawn, and together they cut the throats of the prisoners.

Their excuse for such a terrible crime was that the prisoners had supposedly held discussions with the Romans about surrendering Jerusalem. They claimed they had killed only traitors who had plotted against the freedom of the people.

After committing this bold crime, they became even more arrogant. They acted as though they were the city's benefactors and saviors, rather than the men who had murdered its leading citizens.

6

The people had fallen into such weakness and fear, while the robbers had grown so bold, that the robbers now took it upon themselves to appoint the high priests.

They set aside the ancient succession by which the high priests had always been chosen from certain families. Instead, they selected unknown and lowborn men for the office so those men would support their wicked plans. Anyone who received the highest honor in the nation without deserving it was forced to obey the people who had given it to him.

The robbers also set the leading men against one another through lies, schemes, and other tricks. While the powerful people quarreled among themselves, the robbers were free to do whatever they pleased. After committing every kind of injustice against their fellow citizens, they finally turned their insults against God himself and entered the sanctuary with polluted feet.

7

The people were now preparing to rise against them. Ananus, the oldest of the high priests, urged them to do so. He was a wise man, and he might have saved the city if he had been able to escape the plots formed against him.

The robbers had turned the Temple into their fortress. They used it as a place of refuge whenever they feared the anger of the people. The sanctuary, which should have been a holy place, had become a shelter for tyranny.

They even made a joke of the misery they had caused. To test how surprised the people would be and how far their own power extended, they decided to choose the high priest by casting lots. The office had always passed through a particular family, but they pretended that casting lots had been the practice in ancient times.

In truth, their action was nothing more than the destruction of a well-established law. It was a clever scheme for seizing control of the government and appointing rulers according to their own wishes.

8

They summoned one of the priestly families, called Eniachim, and cast lots to decide who would become high priest. The result exposed their wickedness as clearly as possible. The lot fell upon Phannias, the son of Samuel, from the village of Aphtha.

Phannias wasn't merely unfit for the high priesthood. He hardly knew what the office was. He was a simple countryman with no understanding of its duties. Yet the robbers brought him from the countryside without his consent, as though they were putting on a play.

They dressed him in the sacred garments and instructed him at every moment about what he was supposed to do. This terrible act was entertainment to them. But the other priests, who saw from a distance that their holy law had been turned into a joke, wept and mourned the destruction of such a sacred office.

9

The people could no longer tolerate such insolence. They gathered together and prepared to overthrow the tyranny. Gorion, the son of Josephus, and Symeon, the son of Gamaliel, encouraged them. They moved among the crowds and urged everyone to stop enduring the rule of these enemies of freedom.

They called on the people to punish these pests and destroyers and to cleanse the Temple of the men who had polluted it with blood.

The most respected high priests also joined the effort. Jesus, the son of Gamalas, and Ananus, the son of Ananus, bitterly criticized the people for their laziness and urged them to rise against the Zealots. That was the name these men had taken for themselves, as though they were devoted to good causes. In truth, they were devoted to the worst actions and carried them out with greater cruelty than anyone before them.

10

The people gathered for an assembly. Everyone was angry that these men had seized the sanctuary and were committing robbery and murder. Yet they had not begun attacking the Zealots. They believed it would be difficult to defeat them, and they were right.

Ananus stood among the people. He looked again and again toward the Temple, tears filling his eyes, and said:

"Surely it would have been better for me to die before I saw the house of God filled with such abominations. These sacred places should not be entered carelessly, yet they are now crowded with the feet of murderous criminals.

"I wear the garments of the high priest and am still called by that most honored name. Yet I continue to live, and I have become too attached to life. I cannot bring myself to accept a death that would be the glory of my old age. If I were alone, living as if in a desert, I would gladly give up my life for God's sake.

"But what reason is there to keep living among people who cannot feel their own misery and see no way to escape it? When you are seized, you endure it. When you are beaten, you remain silent. When people are murdered, no one dares even to groan aloud. What a bitter tyranny we suffer!

"But why do I blame the tyrants? Wasn't it your weakness that raised them up? Didn't you ignore the first men who gathered around them, when they were still few? Your silence allowed them to grow numerous. When they took up arms, you looked the other way, and by doing so you armed them against yourselves.

"You should have stopped them at the beginning, when they first insulted your relatives. But you delayed, and your delay encouraged them to rob the people. When houses were plundered, no one spoke. That silence allowed the robbers to carry away the owners of those houses. When those people were dragged through the city, no one came to help them.

"After that, the robbers imprisoned the men you had abandoned to them. I won't even speak of how many there were or what positions they held. None of them had been accused or condemned. Yet when no one came to rescue them from prison, you saw those same men murdered.

"We have seen this happen with our own eyes. The best of the people have been led away like animals to be sacrificed, while no one spoke or lifted a hand to save them.

"Will you continue to endure this? Will you stand by while your sanctuary is trampled underfoot? Will you build steps for these profane men so they can climb to even greater power? Won't you pull them down from their position?

"They would already have committed greater crimes if there were anything more important for them to seize than the sanctuary. They have taken the strongest place in the city. You may call it the Temple, but it has become a fortress.

"While tyranny is protected behind such strong walls, and your enemies look down upon you from above, what good is it to hold a council? What hope remains to strengthen your hearts?

"Perhaps you're waiting for the Romans to protect our holy places. Have we truly fallen so low? Have we become so miserable that we expect our enemies to pity us?

"Poor and helpless people, won't you rise and strike back at those who strike you? Even wild animals defend themselves against the ones who wound them.

"Remember the suffering each of you has endured. Bring your own pain before your eyes. Won't those memories sharpen your hearts and drive you to seek revenge?

"Has our most honorable and natural desire, the desire for freedom, completely disappeared? We seem to love slavery, and we love the men who rule over us, as though our ancestors had handed down a love of submission.

"Yet our ancestors fought many great wars for freedom. They weren't so overcome by the power of the Egyptians or the Medes that they stopped doing what they believed was right, even when those nations commanded them to do otherwise.

"Why are we now fighting the Romans? I won't decide here whether such a war is wise or profitable. But what reason do we give for it? Isn't it so we can remain free?

"How can we accept the rulers of the whole world as our masters, yet submit willingly to tyrants from our own nation? Submission to foreigners may be endured because fortune has already placed us under their power. But submission to wicked men from our own country is shameful. We brought that upon ourselves by agreeing to it.

"Since I have mentioned the Romans, I won't hide the thought that has come to me and troubled me greatly. Even if the Romans were to capture us, may God prevent that from happening, we could suffer nothing harder than what these men have already inflicted upon us.

"How can we keep from weeping when we see Roman offerings in our Temple, while men from our own nation steal our property, plunder our glorious capital, and murder our people? The Romans themselves would have stopped short of such crimes.

"The Romans don't go beyond the limits permitted to outsiders. They hesitate to enter our sacred places and stand in fear when they look upon the holy walls. Yet some men born in this country, raised in our customs, and called Jews, walk through the Temple while their hands are still warm from murdering their own countrymen.

"Why should we fear a war against foreigners who have shown more restraint than our own people? If our words match the truth, people may one day say that the Romans defended our laws, while the men among us destroyed them.

"I believe every one of you came here already convinced that these destroyers of our freedom deserve to die. No one could invent a punishment they haven't earned through their crimes. Their actions have stirred anger in all of you, and you have suffered greatly because of them.

"Perhaps many of you are afraid because the Zealots are numerous, bold, and positioned above us. Your carelessness gave them these advantages, and if you continue to neglect the matter, those advantages will only grow.

"More wicked men join them every day, each one running to others like himself. Their boldness increases because no one stands in their way. Their high position will also give them the chance to use weapons against us if we give them enough time.

"But understand this: if we go up and fight them, their own guilty consciences will make them less fierce. The advantage they have from standing above us will be overcome by the strength of our cause.

"Perhaps God himself, whom they have insulted, will turn their weapons back upon them. These impious men may be killed by the very darts they throw at us. We only need to appear before them, and their courage will disappear.

"Even if there is danger in the attempt, it is right to die before these holy gates. We should spend our lives for the sake of our children and wives, and, above all, for the sake of God and his sanctuary.

"I will help you with both my counsel and my hand. I won't hold back any wisdom or strength that can support you. You will not find me sparing my own body either."

11.

For these reasons, Ananus urged the people to rise against the Zealots. He knew how hard it would be to defeat them because they were numerous, young, and full of courage. More than anything, they knew what they had done and understood that they could not expect forgiveness in the end. They would never surrender, since they had no hope of escaping punishment for their crimes.

Still, Ananus was ready to suffer whatever might come rather than stand by while the city fell into such disorder. The people cried out for him to lead them against the men he had described in his speech, and every one of them was ready to face any danger for that purpose.

12.

While Ananus was selecting his men and arranging those fit to fight, the Zealots learned what he was doing. Some people had gone to them and reported everything the others were planning. The Zealots became furious, rushed out of the temple in large groups, and attacked everyone they met.

Ananus quickly gathered the people. They were more numerous than the Zealots, but they had fewer weapons because they had not been properly organized for battle. Still, the eagerness of the citizens made up for what they lacked. Their anger was stronger than weapons, and the courage they drew from defending the temple was stronger than numbers alone.

The citizens believed they could not continue living in the city unless they destroyed the robbers within it. The Zealots, for their part, believed that if they lost, no punishment would be too severe for them. Their feelings drove the fighting. At first, they threw stones at one another in the city and near the temple, along with javelins from a distance. When either side gained the advantage, they drew their swords. Many were killed, and many more were wounded.

The relatives of the citizens carried their dead bodies away to their own homes. When a Zealot was wounded, however, he went up into the temple and stained the sacred floor with his blood. It could be said that their blood alone polluted the sanctuary.

During these clashes, the robbers often rushed out of the temple and drove back their enemies. The people became angrier and gathered in greater numbers. Those who retreated were insulted, while the men behind them gave the retreating soldiers no room to escape and forced them back into the fight. At last, the entire crowd turned against the Zealots. The robbers could no longer hold them off and were forced to withdraw little by little into the temple. Ananus and his followers entered at the same time.

This terrified the robbers because they had lost the first court. They immediately fled into the inner court and shut the gates. Ananus did not think it right to attack the holy gates, even though the Zealots threw stones and darts down at his men from above. He also believed it unlawful to bring the people into that court before they had been purified.

So he chose six thousand armed men by lot and placed them as guards in the cloisters. The guards took turns serving there, and each man had to appear when his turn came. Many leading citizens, however, were released by the men who had taken control of the government. They hired poorer men to serve in their places and sent them to guard the temple.

13.

John was the man who, as we have already said, had fled from Gischala and caused all these people to be destroyed. He was extremely clever and carried a powerful desire for tyranny in his heart. Although he remained at a distance, he directed these actions and advised the Zealots.

At this time, John pretended to support the people. He went everywhere with Ananus when Ananus met each day with the leading men. He also joined Ananus during his nighttime rounds of the guards. Yet John reported their secrets to the Zealots. Everything the people discussed became known to their enemies through him, often before the people had even reached an agreement among themselves.

To avoid suspicion, John acted as though he were Ananus's closest friend and the friend of the city's leading men. His efforts had the opposite effect. He praised them so excessively that they trusted him even less. He was always present, even when no one had invited him, and this made them strongly suspect that he was revealing their plans to the enemy. They could see that the Zealots knew every decision made against them in council.

No one had given them more reason for suspicion than John. Yet removing him was not easy because his wicked actions had made him powerful. Many important men supported him, including those who were consulted on every major matter.

The leaders decided that John should swear an oath to prove his loyalty. He readily promised that he was on the people's side, that he would not reveal their plans or actions to their enemies, and that he would help them defeat those who attacked them, both with his sword and with his advice.

Ananus and his followers believed his oath. They allowed him to join their councils without further suspicion. They trusted him so much that they sent him into the temple as their ambassador to the Zealots with an offer of peace. They wanted to avoid polluting the temple as much as possible, and they did not want any member of their nation to be killed there.

14.

But John entered the temple as if he had sworn his oath to the Zealots and meant to prove his loyalty to them, not to oppose them. He stood among them and spoke in this way:

"I have faced many dangers for your sake, and I have come to tell you everything Ananus and his followers have secretly planned against you. Yet both you and I are now in the greatest danger unless help comes to us.

"Ananus is no longer waiting. He has persuaded the people to send ambassadors to Vespasian, inviting him to come at once and take the city. He has also ordered a fast for tomorrow. He plans to use this religious occasion to gain entry into the temple, or else to seize it by force and fight you inside it.

"I don't see how long you can withstand a siege, or how you can fight against so many enemies. By God's providence, I was sent here as an ambassador to offer peace. Ananus made this offer only so he could attack you when you were unarmed.

"You must choose one of two courses. Either persuade the men guarding you to spare your lives, or obtain outside help for yourselves. If you hope that you will be forgiven after you are defeated, you have forgotten the desperate acts you have committed. Do you really think that once you repent, the people who suffered because of you will immediately make peace with you?

"Those who have been injured often continue to hate the people who claim to regret harming them. When the victims gain power, they usually punish the offenders even more severely. The families and friends of those who were killed will always be plotting against you.

"A large part of the people are also furious because you have openly violated the laws and held illegal courts. A few may feel pity for you, but the greater number will silence them."

CHAPTER 4

The Zealots Call for the Idumeans, Who Come at Once to Jerusalem but Are Shut Out of the City; Jesus, One of the High Priests, Speaks to Them, and Simon the Idumean Answers

1

John's clever speech frightened the Zealots. He didn't dare say openly what foreign help he meant, but he hinted at the Idumeans. To stir up the Zealot leaders even more, he accused Ananus of preparing some act of cruelty and of making special threats against them.

The leaders were Eleazar, the son of Simon, who seemed the most capable of them all, both in judging what ought to be done and in carrying out his decisions, and Zacharias, the son of Phalek. Both came from priestly families.

When these two men heard the general threats made against all of them, along with the threats aimed directly at themselves, they were also told that Artanus and his followers had invited the Romans to help them secure control of the city. That was another lie spread by John. The two leaders spent a long time debating what they should do.

Time was running out. The people were preparing to attack them, and the sudden plot against them had almost destroyed any hope of receiving help from outside. Their situation could become desperate before their allies even learned what had happened.

At last, they decided to call in the Idumeans. They sent them a short letter that said:

"Ananus has deceived the people and is betraying our capital to the Romans. We have separated ourselves from the others and are being held in the Temple because we are defending our freedom. Only a little time remains for our rescue. Unless you come at once, we will soon fall into the hands of Artanus, and the city will fall under Roman control."

They also instructed the messengers to give the Idumean leaders many more details.

Two active men were chosen to carry the message. They could speak well and persuade the Idumeans that the situation was as desperate as the letter claimed. They were also very fast runners, which was even more important. The Zealots knew the Idumeans would respond quickly. They were a restless and disorderly people, always watching for any change and eager for upheaval. If someone praised them a little and asked for their help, they quickly took up their weapons, marched out, and hurried toward battle as if they were going to a feast.

The message had to be delivered without delay, and the messengers were well suited for the task. Both were named Ananias, and they soon reached the Idumean leaders.

2

The Idumean leaders were shocked by the letter and by the further reports brought by the messengers. They ran through the nation like madmen, announcing that the people must prepare for war.

A great crowd gathered at once, even before the time named in the proclamation. Everyone seized his weapons to defend the freedom of his capital. Twenty thousand men were formed into battle order and marched toward Jerusalem under four commanders: John, Jacob the son of Sosas, Simon the son of Cathlas, and Phineas the son of Clusothus.

3

Ananus and the guards knew nothing about the messengers leaving, but they did learn that the Idumeans were approaching. Since Ananus had been warned before they arrived, he ordered the gates shut and placed guards along the walls.

He had no intention of fighting them if it could be avoided. Before the two sides came to blows, he wanted to try persuasion. So Jesus, the oldest high priest after Artanus, stood on the tower facing the Idumeans and said:

"Many troubles, of every kind, have fallen upon this city. Yet none has astonished me as much as what I see now. You have come to help wicked men, and you have done so in a most unusual way. You are supporting the worst men among us with such eagerness that you could hardly have shown more zeal if our capital had called you to defend it against barbarians.

"If your army were made up of men like those who called you here, your action would not seem so foolish. Nothing unites people more than similar habits and character. But examine the men who invited you, one by one, and every one of them will be found to deserve ten thousand deaths.

"They are the scum of the whole country. They wasted their own wealth through drunkenness and corruption, then tested their hands by plundering the nearby villages and cities. At last, they slipped secretly into this holy city. They are robbers who have polluted this sacred place with their crimes. Now they drink themselves senseless in the Temple and spend the wealth stolen from those they murdered on their own greedy appetites.

"As for the people who came with you, they are properly armed, as they should be if their capital had called them to fight foreign enemies. What else can this be called but a cruel joke of fortune, when an entire nation comes to protect a group of wicked men?

"For a long time I couldn't understand what had moved you to act so quickly. Surely you wouldn't put on your armor for robbers and against people related to you without some great reason. Now we have heard the claim that the Romans are being invited here, and that we plan to betray the city to them. Some of your men have recently shouted these accusations and said they came to set their capital free.

"We can only wonder at the lie these wretches have invented against us. They knew that the only way to anger men who love freedom and who are therefore eager to fight foreign enemies was to claim that we were about to betray that freedom.

"But you should consider who is spreading this accusation and against whom it has been raised. Learn the truth from the actions of both sides, not from invented speeches.

"Why would we sell ourselves to the Romans when we could have avoided rebelling against them in the first place? Even after we rebelled, we could have returned to their rule while the neighboring countries were still unharmed. Now that they have conquered Galilee and have become proud and cruel, it would be difficult to make peace with them even if we wanted it. Trying to please them while they are so close would bring us a disgrace worse than death.

"As for me, I once would have preferred peace with the Romans to death. But now that we have fought them, I would rather die with honor than live as their captive.

"Who do these men say sent word to the Romans? Do they accuse us, the rulers of the people, of doing this secretly? Or do they claim that the whole people agreed to it?

"If we alone did it, let them name the friends we sent as our agents to carry out this betrayal. Did anyone catch a messenger leaving? Did anyone seize one on his return? Do they possess our letters?

"How could we hide such a thing from the countless citizens we meet every hour, while the Zealots, who are few in number, locked inside the Temple and unable to enter the city, somehow know what was done in secret?

"Is this the first time these men have realized that they deserve punishment for their insolence? While they were free from the fear that now troubles them, no one accused us of treason.

"If they accuse the whole people, then the matter must have been discussed in a public assembly. Not one person could have disagreed, or word of it would have spread to you before any private message arrived. There would also have been ambassadors sent to confirm the agreement. Let them tell us who those ambassadors were.

"This accusation is only a story invented by men who are afraid to die and are trying to escape the punishment hanging over them. If fate had decided that this city would be betrayed to its enemies, no one but men like these, who accuse us falsely, would have had the shamelessness to carry out such a crime. They already possess every other kind of wickedness. They only needed to become traitors as well.

"Now that you Idumeans have come here armed, your first duty is to help your capital. Join us in destroying the tyrants who have broken the rules of our courts, trampled on our laws, and made the sword the judge of right and wrong.

"They have seized men of high standing without any accusation against them while those men stood in the marketplace. They bound and tortured them, refused to hear their defenses or prayers, and then killed them.

"If you wish, enter the city without coming as enemies. Look at the evidence that remains of what I have said. You will see houses emptied by their greed, along with wives and families dressed in mourning for their murdered relatives. You will hear cries and lamentations throughout the city.

"No one has escaped the attacks of these profane men. Their madness has grown so great that they have carried their robberies from the countryside and distant cities into this capital, the head of the whole nation. They have even carried them from the city into the Temple. That holy place is now their shelter and the base from which they prepare their attacks against us.

"This is the place honored by the whole inhabited world, respected even by those who know it only through reports from the ends of the earth. Yet these wild beasts, born among our own people, trample it underfoot.

"They rejoice in the desperate condition they have created. They are pleased to hear that one people is preparing to fight another, one city another, and that your nation has raised an army against its own kin.

"Instead, as I said before, you should join us in destroying these wretches. You should also punish them for deceiving you, for having the nerve to call you to their aid when they ought to have feared you as the men who would punish them.

"If you still respect their invitation, put down your weapons and enter the city as our relatives. Take a position between allies and enemies, and judge the dispute between us.

"Think about what these men will gain by being brought before you for crimes so clear and shameful. They refused to hear men who had not even been accused of anything, yet now they demand that you hear them.

"Still, let them receive this benefit from your arrival. If you won't share our anger against these men or judge between us, then I have a third request. Leave us alone. Don't take advantage of our troubles, and don't remain with those who have plotted against their own capital.

"Even if you suspect that some of us have spoken with the Romans, you can watch the roads leading into the city. If proof of these accusations appears, return to defend your capital and punish those who are guilty. The enemy can't stop you when you are so close to the city.

"But if none of these proposals seems fair to you, don't wonder that the gates are closed while you stand outside carrying weapons."

4

Jesus spoke these words, but the Idumean crowd paid no attention. They were furious because they had not been allowed into the city. Their commanders were also angry at the suggestion that they should surrender their weapons. They considered throwing them down at another man's command no better than surrendering themselves.

Simon, the son of Cathlas, one of their commanders, had great difficulty calming his men. At last, he stood where the high priests could hear him and said:

"I no longer wonder that the men who claim to defend freedom are being held in the Temple. The people who shut the gates of our common city against their own nation are also ready to admit the Romans. Perhaps they even plan to crown the gates with garlands when the Romans arrive. Yet they speak to the Idumeans from their towers and order us to put down the weapons we took up to defend the city's freedom.

"They refuse to trust their own relatives with the defense of the capital, but they claim they want us to judge the dispute among them. They accuse some men of killing others without a legal trial, while they themselves condemn an entire nation without honor or justice. They have shut their own people out of a city that used to stand open even to foreigners who came to worship there.

"We came here in great haste, prepared to fight our own countrymen. We hurried because we wanted to protect the freedom you are so foolishly betraying.

"You have probably committed the same crimes against the men you hold prisoner, and I suppose you have prepared the same convincing excuses against them that you now use against us. You seized control of the people in the Temple and keep them locked up, even though they were only trying to manage public affairs.

"You also shut the city gates against nations closely related to you. Then, while giving such unjust orders to others, you complain that you have been oppressed by them and call those men unjust rulers whom you yourselves oppress.

"Who can tolerate this abuse of words when your actions say the opposite? Do you mean that the Idumeans are now keeping you out of your capital, just as you keep us out of the sacred offices of our own country?

"One may rightly blame the men trapped in the Temple. When they had the courage to punish the tyrants you call important men, men who were free from accusation only because they shared in your crimes, they should have begun with you. They should have removed the most dangerous part of this treason first.

"But if these men showed more mercy than the public need allowed, we Idumeans will protect this house of God. We will fight for our common country. We will oppose those who attack it from outside and those who betray it from within.

"We will remain here before the walls with our weapons until either the Romans grow tired of waiting for you, or you become friends of freedom and regret what you have done against it."

The Idumeans shouted their approval of Simon's speech. Jesus left in sorrow because he saw that the Idumeans rejected every moderate proposal and that the city was now besieged on both sides.

The Idumeans themselves were far from calm. They were furious at being shut out of the city. When they remembered how strong the Zealots had claimed to be, yet saw no sign of help from them, many began to doubt the whole matter. Some regretted coming.

Still, they were ashamed to return without accomplishing anything. That shame overcame their regret, and they spent the night outside the wall in a miserable camp.

During the night, a terrible storm broke out. Violent winds drove heavy rain across the ground. Lightning flashed without stopping, thunder roared, and the earth shook with frightening crashes and rumblings.

These events seemed to show that destruction was coming upon the people, since the whole order of nature appeared to have been thrown into confusion. Anyone could have guessed that such wonders announced great calamities ahead.

5

The Idumeans and the citizens reached the same conclusion about the storm. The Idumeans thought God was angry because they had taken up arms and that they would not escape punishment for making war against their own capital.

Ananus and his supporters believed they had won without fighting and that God himself had acted as their general. Both sides were wrong about what the storm meant. They thought it warned their enemies, but they were the ones who would suffer from what followed.

The Idumeans pressed close together, forming one solid group to keep warm. They also joined their shields over their heads, which protected them from much of the rain.

The Zealots were more troubled by the danger facing the Idumeans than by their own danger. They gathered together and looked for a way to help them.

The more violent among them thought they should force their way past the guards, enter the city, and open the gates for the Idumeans. They believed the guards would be thrown into confusion by such a sudden attack, especially because most of them were unarmed and had little experience in war.

They also thought the citizens wouldn't gather quickly. The storm would keep most people inside their homes. Even if the plan were dangerous, the Zealots believed they ought to suffer any risk rather than ignore the great number of Idumeans who were suffering because of them.

The wiser Zealots rejected this plan. They saw that the guards around them were numerous and that the city walls were being watched closely because of the Idumeans. They also assumed that Ananus would be everywhere, visiting the guards each hour.

That was usually what he did on other nights. But that night he didn't make his rounds, not because he was careless, but because fate had arranged matters so that he and many of the guards would perish.

Late in the night, while the storm raged, Ananus allowed the guards in the Temple cloisters to go to sleep. The Zealots then thought of using the Temple saws to cut through the bars of the gates.

The wind and thunder helped them. The noise of the saws was lost in the storm, and no one else heard what they were doing.

6

The Zealots secretly left the Temple and went to the city wall. There they used their saws and opened the gate facing the Idumeans.

At first, the Idumeans were frightened. They thought Ananus and his followers were coming to attack them, so every man placed his right hand on his sword and prepared to defend himself.

Soon they learned who had come and realized that the Zealots had entered the city.

If the Idumeans had attacked the city at that moment, nothing could have stopped them from killing everyone. Their anger was extreme. But their first concern was to free the Zealots from captivity.

The men who had opened the gate urged them to do this without delay. They told the Idumeans not to abandon the people for whose sake they had come, especially while those people were still in danger. Once the guards were overpowered, it would be easy to attack the city.

But if the city was warned first, the guards would have time to prepare. As soon as they realized the Idumeans were inside, they would arrange themselves for battle and prevent them from reaching the Temple.

CHAPTER 5

The Cruelty of the Idumeans After They Entered the Temple During the Storm, and the Deeds of the Zealots; The Deaths of Ananus, Jesus, and Zacharias, and the Idumeans' Return Home

1

The Idumeans approved this advice and made their way through the city toward the temple. The zealots were eagerly waiting for them. As soon as the Idumeans entered, the zealots came out from the inner temple, mixed with them, and attacked the guards.

Some of the guards were asleep, and the zealots killed them in their sleep. When the others woke up and began shouting, the whole group rose in alarm. They quickly seized their weapons and prepared to defend themselves. At first, they thought only the zealots had attacked them, and they fought boldly because they believed their greater numbers would defeat them. But when they saw another force pressing against them, they realized that the Idumeans had entered as well.

Most of the guards dropped their weapons and lost their courage. They began to mourn and cry out. A few of the younger men put on their armor, stood bravely against the Idumeans, and protected the older men for a time. Others sent word into the city about the danger they faced. But once the people learned that the Idumeans had entered, no one dared to come to their aid. They answered only with loud cries of grief and lamented the disaster.

The women also began to wail, and every guard was in danger of being killed. The zealots joined the Idumeans in their shouting, while the storm made the noise even more frightening. The Idumeans spared no one. They were a naturally savage and bloodthirsty people, and the storm had already left them angry and distressed. They used their weapons against those who had shut the gates against them, but they treated those who begged for their lives no better than those who fought back.

Some pleaded with them to remember that they were related and to respect their common temple. The Idumeans ignored them and cut them down with their swords. There was no place to flee and no hope of escape. People were forced together in great crowds, and the Idumeans killed them where they stood.

Many were driven into heaps because there was nowhere else to go and their attackers were upon them. With no other choice, some threw themselves headfirst over the walls into the city. In my opinion, they suffered an even more miserable death than the one they were trying to avoid, because they brought it upon themselves.

By dawn, the entire outer temple was covered with blood. When daylight came, 8,500 bodies were counted there.

2

The Idumeans were not satisfied with this slaughter. They entered the city, robbed every house, and killed everyone they found. They considered it unnecessary to kill the rest of the people, so they searched instead for the high priests. Most of them went after the priests with great determination. When they found them, they killed them and then stood upon their bodies as they mocked Ananus for his kindness toward the people and Jesus for the speech he had delivered from the wall.

Their wickedness went so far that they threw the bodies aside without burial. The Jews had always taken great care to bury the dead. They even removed the bodies of condemned men from their crosses and buried them before sunset.

I would not be wrong to say that the death of Ananus began the destruction of the city. From that day, the fall of its walls and the ruin of its affairs could be expected. The people had seen their high priest, the man who had worked to preserve them, killed in the middle of their own city.

Ananus was respected for many other reasons. He was a noble and honorable man who treated even the poorest people as equals. He loved liberty and supported democratic government. He always placed the welfare of the people above his own advantage, and he valued peace above everything else.

He understood that the Romans could not be defeated. He also saw that war was certain to follow, and that the Jews would be destroyed unless they reached an agreement with Rome through careful negotiation. To say it plainly, if Ananus had lived, the Jews would have made peace with the Romans. He was a wise speaker who knew how to persuade the people, and he had already gained control over those who opposed his plans or supported the war.

If the Jews had possessed a leader like Ananus, they could have delayed the Romans for a long time. Jesus stood with him. Although Jesus was not equal to Ananus, he was greater than the rest of the people who opposed the war.

I believe God had already condemned the city because it had become polluted, and that He intended to cleanse the temple with fire. For that reason, He removed these two great defenders and protectors of the people. Not long before, they had worn the sacred garments and led the public worship. People throughout the inhabited world had honored them when they came into our city. Now they were thrown out naked and left as food for dogs and wild animals.

It seemed that virtue itself mourned over their deaths and grieved because wickedness had defeated it so completely. This was the end of Ananus and Jesus.

3

After Ananus and Jesus were killed, the zealots and the Idumeans turned on the people as though they were a herd of animals unfit for sacrifice. They cut their throats and killed ordinary people wherever they found them.

When they captured nobles and young men, they first bound them and locked them in prison. They delayed their deaths because they hoped some of them would join their side. Not one agreed. Every prisoner preferred death to being counted among the wicked men who were attacking their own country.

Their refusal brought terrible suffering upon them. They were beaten and tortured until their bodies could no longer endure it. At last, after great difficulty, they were allowed the mercy of death.

Those captured during the day were killed at night. Their bodies were then carried away and thrown aside so that the prisons would have room for new prisoners. The people were so terrified that no one dared to weep openly for a dead relative or bury the body.

Those who remained shut inside their homes could only cry in secret. They were afraid even to groan, in case their enemies heard them. Anyone caught mourning for another person soon suffered the same death as the one being mourned.

Only at night did some people gather a little dust and scatter it over the bodies. A few of the bravest did this during the day. In this way, 12,000 people from the better classes were killed.

4

By this time, the zealots and the Idumeans had grown tired of simply killing people. They had the boldness to establish false courts and pretend to hold legal trials.

They decided to kill Zacharias, son of Baruch, one of the city's most important citizens. Their hatred of him came from his hatred of wickedness and his love of liberty. He was also wealthy, so they hoped to seize his property after killing him. They also wanted to remove a man who had enough influence to destroy them.

They issued a public order and summoned 70 of the leading men among the people. They wanted the gathering to look like a real court, even though these men had no lawful authority to judge anyone.

Zacharias was accused of planning to hand the government of the city over to the Romans and of secretly sending word to Vespasian for that purpose. There was no evidence against him and no sign that the accusation was true. The zealots simply claimed that they were convinced of his guilt and insisted that their own statement should be accepted as proof.

Zacharias understood that there was no way to escape. He had been called before the court by treachery and placed in prison, not because they intended to give him a lawful trial, but because they wanted him killed. Since he knew his life was already lost, he spoke with complete freedom.

He stood up and laughed at the accusation. With only a few words, he disproved the charges against him. Then he turned to those who had accused him. He described their violations of the law one by one and mourned the disorder they had brought upon the government and the people.

The zealots became angry and disorderly. They struggled to keep from drawing their swords, though they still wanted to preserve the appearance of a court until the end. They also wanted to test the judges and see whether the men would choose justice even when their own lives were at risk.

The 70 judges declared Zacharias innocent. They would rather die with him than allow his death to be blamed on them.

The zealots erupted in anger when they heard the verdict. They were furious that the judges had failed to understand that their authority had been given only as a cruel joke. Two of the boldest zealots attacked Zacharias in the middle of the temple and killed him.

As he fell dead, they mocked him, saying, "You have our verdict too, and this acquittal will be more certain for you than the first one."

They then threw his body from the temple into the valley below. Afterward, they struck the judges with the backs of their swords, abused them, and drove them out of the temple court. They spared the judges' lives only so they could return to the city and tell the people that they were nothing more than slaves.

5

By this time, the Idumeans had begun to regret coming to Jerusalem. They were troubled by what had happened. One of the zealots secretly met with them and called them together. He reminded them of all the wicked deeds they had committed alongside the men who had invited them, and he gave them a full account of the crimes committed in the city.

He said that they had taken up arms because they believed the high priests were preparing to betray the city to the Romans. Yet they had found no proof of such treachery. Instead, they had helped those who only pretended to believe the accusation, while those same men carried out acts of war and tyranny with great arrogance.

The Idumeans should have stopped them at the beginning. But since they had already joined in shedding the blood of their own countrymen, it was now time to end these crimes. They should no longer help men who were destroying the laws handed down by their ancestors.

If the Idumeans were angry because the city gates had been closed against them, they had already received their punishment. Ananus was dead, and nearly all those who had barred the gates had been destroyed in a single night.

Many of the Idumeans were already sorry for what they had done. They could now see the terrible cruelty of the men who had called them into the city. Those men had shown no gratitude to the people who saved them. They were shameless enough to commit the worst crimes in front of the very men who had supported them.

All these wicked acts would be blamed on the Idumeans unless they stopped the zealots or separated themselves from their crimes. They should return home. The charge of treason had been shown to be a lie, there was no sign that the Romans were about to attack, and the city was protected by walls that could not easily be destroyed.

By leaving these wicked men and refusing to take part in any more of their crimes, the Idumeans might at least offer some defense for having been deceived and for joining them in the first place.

CHAPTER 6

How the Zealots, After the Idumeans Left, Killed Many More Citizens; and How Vespasian Stopped the Romans From Attacking the Jews While They Were Eager to March Against Them

1

The Idumeans accepted these arguments. Their first act was to release the prisoners, about two thousand ordinary citizens. As soon as they were free, the prisoners fled to Simon, whom we will discuss later. The Idumeans then left Jerusalem and returned home.

Their departure shocked both sides. The people, who knew nothing about the Idumeans' change of heart, gained courage for a short time because so many of their enemies were gone. The Zealots, however, became even more arrogant. They didn't see themselves as abandoned by their allies. Instead, they believed they had been freed from men who might have restrained them or interfered with their crimes.

They stopped delaying or discussing their plans. Whatever evil action they decided on, they carried out at once. More than anyone else, they wanted the blood of brave men and members of respected families. They killed the first group out of envy and the second out of fear. They believed they could never be safe while powerful men remained alive.

For this reason, they killed Gorion, a man of high rank and noble family. He supported democracy and was as bold and outspoken as any Jew. His greatest fault, added to all his other strengths, was that he spoke his mind freely.

Niger of Peres also fell into their hands. He had fought bravely against the Romans, but now they dragged him through the middle of the city. As he went, he cried out often and displayed the scars from his wounds. When they pulled him outside the gates and he realized there was no hope of escape, he begged them to allow him a burial.

They had already told him that they wouldn't give him even a small piece of ground for a grave, which was the favor he wanted most. They killed him without allowing him to be buried. As he died, Niger called down a curse on them. He prayed that famine and disease would strike them during the war, and that they would turn their weapons against one another.

God confirmed this curse against those wicked men. Not long afterward, they suffered the very madness Niger had spoken of as they fought among themselves.

After Niger was killed, the Zealots became less afraid that anyone would overthrow them. They found some excuse to destroy almost every person in the city. They killed some because they had argued with them. Against those who had never opposed them, they waited for a chance to invent an accusation.

If a man stayed away from them, they suspected him of pride. If he approached them boldly, they called him an enemy who despised their authority. If he came hoping to win their favor, they accused him of plotting treachery. Whether the supposed crime was great or small, they gave the same punishment: death.

Only people who were completely insignificant escaped them, either because they came from a poor family or because they had no wealth.

2

The Roman commanders believed the conflict among the Jews gave them a great advantage. They strongly urged Vespasian, their general and leader in every matter, to march against Jerusalem without delay.

They said to him:

"God's providence is on our side. He has turned our enemies against one another. But situations like this can change quickly. The Jews may soon unite again, either because they grow tired of their civil suffering or because they regret what they have done."

Vespasian answered that they were mistaken about what should be done. He compared them to men in a theater who enjoy showing off their strength and weapons, even when doing so puts them in danger. Such men act without considering what will protect them or benefit them.

"If we attack the city now," he said, "we will only force our enemies to unite. Their strength is at its highest, and they will turn it against us. If we wait, their numbers will fall because they are destroying one another.

"God is acting as the Roman army's general better than any of us could. He is handing the Jews over to us without requiring us to suffer for the victory. He is giving our army success without exposing it to danger.

"While our enemies are killing one another and suffering the worst disaster a people can face, which is civil war, we should remain outside and watch. We shouldn't fight men who love murder and are already mad with hatred for one another.

"If anyone thinks a victory gained without battle will bring us little glory, let him understand this: a successful victory won without needless danger is better than one that costs us a great fight. Men who act with restraint and good judgment deserve as much honor as those who win fame on the battlefield.

"When the Jewish forces have been reduced and our own soldiers have recovered from their long labors, I can lead the army against them with greater strength.

"Now is not the time to chase glory. The Jews aren't making weapons, repairing their walls, or gathering allies. Those who give them time have the advantage, because the Jews are being worn down every day by civil war and internal hatred. They are suffering more than we could make them suffer even if we captured the city.

"If our concern is our safety, we should let the Jews destroy one another. If we care about winning the greater glory, we should still refuse to attack men who are already being ruined by their own troubles. If we defeat them now, people will say that we won because of their civil war, not because of Roman courage."

3

The other commanders agreed with Vespasian, and events soon showed how wise his judgment had been.

Many Jews began deserting the Zealots every day. Escaping was difficult because the Zealots guarded every road and passage out of the city. They killed everyone they caught, assuming that anyone trying to leave intended to join the Romans.

Still, those who paid money were allowed to escape. Only the people who had nothing to give were labeled traitors and put to death. In the end, the rich bought their freedom, while the poor were the only ones killed.

The roads were covered with piles of dead bodies. Many who had been eager to escape eventually decided that it was better to die inside the city. They believed the hope of receiving a burial made death there less terrible than dying on the roads.

The Zealots eventually became so cruel that they refused to bury anyone, whether the person had been killed inside the city or had died along the roads. It was as though they had decided to break both the laws of their country and the laws of nature. Their crimes dishonored humanity, and they seemed determined to insult God as well.

They left the bodies under the sun until they decayed. Anyone who buried the dead received the same punishment as those who tried to escape: death. A man who gave another person the kindness of a grave soon needed a grave for himself.

Mercy had completely disappeared among them. The people who should have inspired the greatest pity only made these cruel men more furious. Their anger moved from the living to the dead, and then from the dead back to the living.

The terror became so great that the survivors called those who had died first fortunate, because they were already at rest. Even the prisoners suffering in their cells said that, compared with their own condition, the unburied dead were the happiest of all.

The Zealots trampled on every human law and mocked the laws of God. They laughed at the prophets' warnings as if they were nothing more than tricks told by magicians. Yet those prophets had clearly foretold the rewards of virtue and the punishment of wickedness.

By breaking those laws, the Zealots brought about the very prophecies they mocked. An ancient prophecy among the Jews said that the city would be captured and the Temple burned through the power of war when civil conflict came upon the people and their own hands polluted God's sanctuary.

The Zealots did not entirely reject this prophecy. Yet through their actions, they made themselves the very instruments by which it was fulfilled.

CHAPTER 7

How John Tyrannized the People, What the Zealots Did at Masada, How Vespasian Took Gadara, and What Placidus Accomplished

1

By this time, John had begun to rule like a tyrant. He no longer thought it acceptable to receive the same honors as the other leaders. Little by little, he gathered the worst men among them around himself and separated from the rest of the faction. He had already shown that he would not follow the opinions of others, and he now issued orders of his own in a proud and forceful manner. It became clear that he intended to establish a monarchy.

Some people obeyed him because they feared him. Others followed him because they favored him. John was clever at drawing men to his side, whether by misleading them or by deceiving them. Many also believed they would be safer if responsibility for their former crimes rested with one leader instead of being divided among many. John was active in both planning and action, and he soon gathered a considerable body of guards around him.

Still, many of his opponents abandoned him. Envy played a part in their decision, but they were also unwilling to submit to a man who had once been their equal. The strongest reason for opposing him, however, was their fear of monarchy. Once John gained complete power, they believed it would be almost impossible to remove him. They also knew that he would always hold their opposition against them, since they had resisted him when he first rose to power.

For this reason, many chose to endure every hardship of war rather than live under voluntary slavery and later be destroyed by the ruler they had helped establish. The rebellion was now divided into two sides, with John ruling one of them against his enemies. The leaders watched one another closely, but they rarely used weapons against each other in their own disputes. Instead, they fought the people and competed to see who could return with the greatest amount of plunder.

Jerusalem was now suffering under three great evils: war, tyranny, and civil conflict. Compared with the other two, war seemed the least painful burden for the people. Many fled their homes and went to foreigners, receiving from the Romans the protection they no longer hoped to find among their own countrymen.

2

A fourth disaster now arose, one that brought the nation even closer to destruction.

Not far from Jerusalem stood a powerful fortress called Masada. The ancient kings had built it both to store their treasures during wartime and to protect their own bodies after death. The Sicarii had taken control of the fortress some time earlier. Until then, fear had kept them from going too far, so they had mostly raided the lands around them to obtain the supplies they needed.

When they learned that the Roman army had stopped its advance and that the Jews were divided by civil war and tyranny, they dared to attempt greater acts of violence. During the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which the Jews celebrate in memory of their deliverance from Egypt and their return to the land of their ancestors, they came down from Masada at night. The people who might have stopped them did not discover their approach.

The Sicarii attacked a small city called Engaddi. Before the inhabitants could arm themselves or organize a defense, the attackers drove them away and scattered them. They killed more than seven hundred people who were unable to flee, including women and children. After emptying the houses and taking all the produce that was ready for harvest, they carried the goods back to Masada.

They also destroyed the villages around the fortress and left the whole region desolate. Every day, men as corrupt as themselves arrived from different places and joined them. By then, nearly every part of Judea that had remained peaceful was being disturbed by these bands of robbers.

What happens in the human body when one important part becomes inflamed? The sickness spreads through all the other members. The same thing happened in Judea. Because rebellion and disorder had taken hold in the capital, wicked men in the countryside found an opportunity to plunder their neighbors. After robbing their own villages, they withdrew into the wilderness.

These groups were too small to be called an army, but they were too numerous to be dismissed as ordinary gangs of thieves. They attacked sacred places and cities alike. At times, the people they attacked treated them harshly and captured them as they would capture enemies in war. Even then, the robbers often escaped further punishment. As soon as their crimes were discovered, they fled like thieves who had been caught in the act.

No part of Judea remained free from misery, and the nation's most important city suffered along with the countryside.

3

Deserters brought news of these events to Vespasian. The rebels had guarded every road leading out of Jerusalem and killed anyone they caught trying to leave. Still, some people had hidden themselves and eventually escaped to the Romans. They urged Vespasian to come to the aid of their city and save the people who remained there.

They told him that many citizens had already been killed because they favored the Romans, and that those who survived were in danger of suffering the same fate. Vespasian already felt pity for the people trapped in such misery. He set out as if he intended to besiege Jerusalem, but his real purpose was to free the inhabitants from the worse siege already imposed on them by their own countrymen.

Before he could attack Jerusalem, however, he had to subdue the surrounding regions and remove every threat that might interfere with the siege. He therefore marched against Gadara, the capital of Perea. It was a well-defended city, but the leading citizens had secretly sent an embassy to him to discuss surrender.

They wanted peace, and they also wished to protect their property, since many of the people of Gadara were wealthy. The rebels knew nothing about the embassy until Vespasian was already approaching the city. Once they discovered what had happened, they realized they could not hold Gadara. They were fewer than the enemy inside the city, and the Roman army was already near its walls.

The rebels decided to flee. Still, they thought it would be shameful to leave without first shedding blood and taking revenge on those who had arranged the surrender. They seized Dolesus, a man who was first in rank and family among the people of Gadara and who appeared to have been the main cause of the embassy. They killed him and abused his dead body with great cruelty.

Afterward, they escaped from the city. The Roman army was now close at hand, so the people of Gadara welcomed Vespasian with joyful shouts. He assured them of his protection and placed a guard of cavalry and infantry in the city to defend them from the fleeing rebels.

The people had already torn down their walls before the Romans asked them to do so. By destroying their defenses, they wanted to show that they desired peace and that they would not be able to make war against the Romans even if they changed their minds.

4

Vespasian sent Placidus after the men who had fled from Gadara. Placidus had five hundred horsemen and three thousand infantry with him. Vespasian himself returned to Caesarea with the rest of the army.

When the fugitives saw the cavalry close behind them, they ran toward a village called Bethennabris. They found a large number of young men there and armed them, partly with their agreement and partly by force. Then, acting without proper judgment, they suddenly attacked Placidus and his troops.

At the first charge, the Roman horsemen gave way for a short distance. They did this to draw the enemy away from the village wall. Once they had led the Jews into a place that suited their purpose, the horsemen surrounded them and began throwing their spears.

The cavalry blocked the fugitives' escape, while the infantry attacked those who resisted. The Jews showed courage, but they could not withstand the Roman formation. The soldiers stood close together, protected by their armor as if behind a wall. The Jews could find no opening through which to strike them, while Roman spears pierced their own ranks.

Some were cut down by swords when they rushed forward. Others broke apart and were scattered by the cavalry. Their first attack had shown bravery, but it soon ended in destruction.

5

Placidus's chief concern was to keep the fugitives from reaching Bethennabris. He kept his cavalry moving along their side, then suddenly turned against them. His men threw their spears at those nearest to them, while the fear of the attack forced those farther away to turn back.

At last, the bravest among the fugitives broke through the cavalry and reached the village wall. The men guarding the wall did not know what to do. They could not bear to shut out the people from Gadara, since some of their own countrymen were among them. Yet they expected to die if they let the fugitives inside, and that is what happened.

As the crowd pressed toward the wall, the Roman horsemen were ready to attack. The guards managed to hold them back and shut the gates. Placidus then assaulted the village. He continued fighting until nightfall, when he seized the wall and captured the people inside.

The common crowd was killed. The wealthier and more powerful men escaped. The soldiers plundered the houses and set the village on fire.

Those who fled from Bethennabris stirred up the people in the surrounding countryside. They exaggerated their own losses and claimed that the entire Roman army was coming against them. Their reports filled everyone with fear. Large numbers gathered and fled toward Jericho, since they knew of no other place that offered a chance of safety. Jericho had strong walls and a large population.

Placidus trusted his cavalry and the success he had already achieved, so he pursued them. He killed everyone he caught as far as the Jordan River. When the fugitives reached the river, they could go no farther. Recent rains had swollen the water, and the river could not be crossed.

Placidus placed his soldiers in battle formation across from them. The fugitives had nowhere left to run, so desperation forced them to fight. They spread out along the riverbank and endured the Roman spear attacks as well as the charges of the cavalry. Many were struck down by the horsemen and pushed into the current.

In the hand-to-hand fighting, fifteen thousand Jews were killed. A great many others were forced into the Jordan, where they drowned. Two thousand two hundred were taken prisoner. The Romans also captured a huge amount of property, including donkeys, sheep, camels, and cattle.

6

The destruction of the Jews was no less severe than any other disaster that had fallen upon them. Still, it appeared even greater than it truly was because the entire countryside through which they had fled was covered with the dead. The bodies in the Jordan were so numerous that they prevented others from crossing the river.

The Dead Sea was also filled with corpses carried into it by the current. After this victory, Placidus attacked the smaller cities and villages nearby. He captured Abila, Julias, Bezemoth, and every place as far as the shores of the Dead Sea.

He placed deserters in each city as he thought best. Then he put his soldiers aboard ships and killed those who had fled onto the lake. In this way, the whole region of Perea had either surrendered to the Romans or been taken by force, as far as Machaerus.

CHAPTER 8

How Vespasian, After Hearing of the Revolt in Gaul, Hastened to End the Jewish War; A Description of Jericho and the Great Plain, with an Account of the Lake Asphaltitis

1

During this time, word reached Vespasian that Gaul was in revolt. Vindex and the leading men of that country had risen against Nero. That matter is described more fully elsewhere. When Vespasian heard the news, he pressed forward with the war, for he already saw the civil conflicts that were about to come. He also understood that the government itself was in danger.

He believed that if he could first bring the eastern provinces under control, the danger threatening Italy would be less severe. Since winter kept him from taking the field, he placed garrisons in the villages and smaller towns. He appointed decurions over the villages and centurions over the cities. He also rebuilt many towns that had been destroyed.

When spring began, he took most of his army from Caesarea and marched to Antipatris. He spent two days putting the affairs of that city in order. On the third day, he continued his march, burning and destroying the villages nearby. After laying waste to the territory around the toparchy of Thamnas, he moved on to Lydda and Jamnia.

When both cities submitted to him, he settled many of the people who had come over to his side in them. He then went to Emmaus, where he seized the road leading to Jerusalem, their capital. After fortifying his camp there, he left the Fifth Legion behind and marched to the toparchy of Bethletephon.

He burned Bethletephon and the surrounding places. He also strengthened the strongholds at suitable locations throughout Idumea. After capturing two villages in the heart of Idumea, Betaris and Caphartobas, he killed more than ten thousand of their inhabitants. He took more than a thousand people captive and drove away the rest.

Vespasian stationed a large part of his army in those villages. His soldiers then spread through the hill country, destroying everything in their path. Vespasian himself returned to Emmaus with the rest of the army. From there he marched through Samaria and passed near the city that some called Neapolis, or Sichem, while the people of that region called it Mabortha. He continued to Corea, where he set up his camp on the second day of the month Desius, which the Jews call Sivan.

The next day he reached Jericho. On that same day, Trajan, one of his commanders, joined him with the troops he had brought from Perea. By then, all the territory beyond the Jordan had already been conquered.

2

A large crowd came out of Jericho before the Roman army arrived. They fled into the mountains opposite Jerusalem. Those who remained behind were largely destroyed, and the Romans found the city deserted.

Jericho lies in a plain. A long, bare, barren mountain rises above it. To the north, this mountain extends toward the land near Scythopolis. To the south, it reaches as far as the region of Sodom and the farthest shore of Lake Asphaltitis. The mountain is rough and empty because the land is so poor.

A second mountain range lies across the Jordan. It begins near Julias and the northern country, then stretches southward as far as Somorrhon, which marks the boundary of Petra in Arabia. One part of this range is called the Iron Mountain. It extends all the way to Moab.

The land between these two mountain ranges is called the Great Plain. It runs from the village of Ginnabris to Lake Asphaltitis. It is about two hundred and thirty furlongs long and one hundred and twenty furlongs wide. The Jordan River divides it down the middle.

The plain contains two lakes, Lake Asphaltitis and Lake Tiberias. Their waters are very different. Asphaltitis is salty and unable to support life, while Tiberias is fresh and fruitful. The Great Plain becomes extremely hot in summer, and the air is unhealthy because of the heat. Apart from the Jordan, the region has almost no water.

The Jordan is the reason the palm groves near its banks grow so well and produce such abundant fruit. The palms farther away from the river are not as healthy or as productive.

3

Near Jericho there is a spring that flows in great abundance and is well suited for watering the land. It rises close to the old city that Joshua, son of Nun, the commander of the Hebrews, captured first among all the cities of Canaan.

The story says that the spring once harmed the land and the trees. It was also said to cause women to give birth to sickly children. Everything it touched was believed to suffer from its unhealthy and destructive nature. The prophet Elisha later changed the spring and made its water wholesome and productive.

Elisha had been close to the prophet Elijah and became his successor. Once, when he was staying with the people of Jericho, the people treated him with great kindness. He repaid them with a lasting blessing for both the city and the surrounding land.

Elisha went out to the spring and threw a clay vessel filled with salt into the flowing water. Then he lifted his righteous hand toward heaven and poured out a gentle offering as he prayed. He asked that the water might be made pure, that fresh springs might open beneath it, and that God might give the land a mild and fertile climate.

He also prayed that the people would receive abundant crops and many children, and that the fruitful water would never fail them as long as they continued to live righteously. Elisha added the proper actions to his prayer, and by this sacred act he changed the spring.

The water that had once brought barrenness and famine began to provide the land with abundant harvests and many descendants. Its power in watering the soil is so great that land touched by it receives more nourishment from a small amount of water than other land receives from a much greater supply.

For this reason, other waters produce only a limited benefit even when they flow in abundance. This spring is highly useful even when its flow is small. It waters a region about seventy furlongs long and twenty furlongs wide. The area is filled with fine gardens and thickly planted trees.

Many kinds of palm trees grow there, and each kind has its own taste and name. The finest palms produce, when pressed, a honey of excellent quality. Its sweetness is nearly equal to that of ordinary honey.

The region also produces honey from bees, along with balsam, the most valuable of all the plants found there. Cypress trees grow there, as do trees that bear myrobalanum. Anyone who called the place blessed would not be wrong, since it produces so many rare and excellent trees.

The other fruits of the region are just as remarkable. Few places in the inhabited world can be compared with it. Whatever is planted there grows in thick clusters. The warmth of the air draws out the shoots and helps them spread, while the abundant water gives their roots the strength they need and sustains them through the summer.

Yet the country becomes so hot and scorched that people avoid it during that season. Water taken from the spring before sunrise becomes extremely cold when exposed to the air. It has a quality that is completely different from the surrounding climate. In winter, the water becomes warm, and anyone who enters it finds it gentle and pleasant.

The air around the spring is also so mild that the people there wear linen clothing even when snow covers the rest of Judea. Jericho is one hundred and fifty furlongs from Jerusalem and sixty furlongs from the Jordan.

The land between Jerusalem and Jericho is dry and rocky. The country between Jericho, the Jordan, and Lake Asphaltitis lies lower, but it is just as dry and barren. This is enough to show the advantages of Jericho and the remarkable fertility of its location.

4

The nature of Lake Asphaltitis also deserves description. As mentioned earlier, its water is bitter and unable to support life. It is so dense that it can carry even the heaviest objects thrown into it. A person who wants to sink something to the bottom has great difficulty doing so.

When Vespasian visited the lake, he ordered several men who could not swim to have their hands tied behind them. He then had them thrown into the deepest water. Yet all of them floated, as though a strong wind had lifted them upward.

The lake's color is also unusual. It changes its appearance three times each day. As the sun's rays strike the surface from different angles, the light is reflected in different ways.

The lake throws up black lumps of bitumen in many places. These clumps float on the surface and look like headless bulls in both shape and size. Workers who gather bitumen from the lake row out to it and seize the mass while it is still joined together. They then pull it toward their ships.

Once a ship is full, cutting away the remaining bitumen is difficult. The substance is so sticky that the ship remains attached to the floating clumps. The workers separate it only by using menstrual blood and urine, the two things to which the bitumen is said to yield.

The bitumen is useful for sealing ships. It is also used to treat the human body and is mixed into many medicines.

The lake is about five hundred and eighty furlongs long, extending as far as Zoar in Arabia. It is one hundred and fifty furlongs wide. The land of Sodom borders it.

In ancient times, Sodom was a prosperous country. Its soil produced rich crops, and its cities were wealthy. Now the whole region has been burned. The account says that the wickedness of its inhabitants brought down lightning, which destroyed the land.

The remains of that divine fire can still be seen. The outlines, or shadows, of the five cities are still visible. Ashes also appear in the fruit that grows there. The fruit has the color and appearance of something fit to eat, but when a person picks it, it breaks apart into smoke and ashes.

The land of Sodom still bears these visible signs of the destruction that is told of it.

CHAPTER 9

Vespasian Prepares to Besiege Jerusalem After Capturing Gadara, but Changes His Plans When He Hears of Nero's Death; The Story of Simon of Gerasa

1

Vespasian had now fortified every place around Jerusalem. He also built citadels at Jericho and Adida and stationed troops in both places, partly Roman soldiers and partly auxiliary forces. He sent Lucius Annius to Gerasa with a strong force of cavalry and infantry.

Annius captured the city at his first attack. He killed a thousand young men who hadn't escaped, took their families captive, and allowed his soldiers to seize their possessions. Afterward, he burned the houses and withdrew to the nearby villages. The influential men had already fled, while the weaker people were killed, and everything that remained was burned.

The war had now spread through the mountain country and the plains. The people in Jerusalem could no longer leave the city freely. The Zealots watched anyone who wanted to desert, while the Roman army surrounded the city on every side and kept inside those who had not yet joined the Romans.

2

Vespasian returned to Caesarea and began preparing his entire army to march straight against Jerusalem. Then he received news that Nero was dead after ruling for thirteen years and eight days.

I won't give a full account of the way Nero abused his power, handed control of the government to the vile men Nymphidius and Tigellinus, and was later betrayed by them. His guards abandoned him, and he fled with four trusted freedmen before killing himself in the suburbs of Rome. Those who had brought about his death were soon punished themselves.

I also won't describe in detail how the war in Gaul ended, how Galba became emperor and returned from Spain to Rome, or how the soldiers accused him of cowardice and treacherously murdered him in the middle of the Roman marketplace. Otho then became emperor. He fought against the generals of Vitellius, but his defeat led to his own death.

There were also many troubles during Vitellius's rule, including the battle around the Capitol. Antonius Primus and Mucianus eventually killed Vitellius and his German legions, bringing the civil war to an end. I have not given a complete account of these events because they are well known and have been described by many Greek and Roman writers. Still, I have mentioned them briefly so the connection between events in this history remains clear.

For this reason, Vespasian delayed his march against Jerusalem. He waited to see who would take control of the empire after Nero's death. When he heard that Galba had become emperor, he took no further action until Galba sent instructions about the war. He did send his son Titus to greet Galba and ask for his orders concerning the Jews.

King Agrippa sailed with Titus for the same reason. While they were traveling along the coast of Achaia in their warships, they learned that Galba had been killed before they could reach him. He had ruled for seven months and seven days. Otho then took control of the government.

Agrippa decided to continue to Rome without fear, even though the empire had changed hands. Titus, however, was moved by divine providence to sail back from Greece to Syria. He hurried to Caesarea to join his father.

Both Vespasian and Titus were uncertain about what would happen next. The Roman Empire was in a state of confusion, so they did not continue their campaign against the Jews. They thought it was the wrong time to attack a foreign people while Rome itself was in danger.

3

Another war now broke out in Jerusalem. A young man named Simon, the son of Giora, had been born in Gerasa. He wasn't as clever as John of Gischala, who had already seized control of the city, but he was stronger and braver.

Ananus the high priest had driven Simon out of the Acrabattene toparchy, where he had once held power. Simon then went to the robbers who had taken Masada. At first, they distrusted him. They allowed him to enter only the lower part of the fortress with the women who traveled with him, while they themselves stayed in the upper section.

Before long, however, Simon's behavior convinced them that he could be trusted. He joined them in raiding and destroying the countryside around Masada. When he urged them to attempt greater things, they refused. They were used to living in the fortress and feared going far from their hiding place.

Simon wanted power and was eager to rule. When he heard that Ananus had died, he left the robbers and went into the mountain country. He announced freedom for slaves and promised rewards to those who were already free. In this way, he gathered wicked men from every part of the country.

4

Once Simon had gathered a strong force, he began attacking the villages in the mountains. More and more people joined him, and he eventually dared to move down into the lower country.

He had become a serious threat to the cities. Many powerful men joined him, and his army was no longer made up only of slaves and robbers. Large numbers of ordinary people obeyed him as if he were their king.

Simon then overran the Acrabattene toparchy and the land reaching toward Great Idumea. At a village called Nain, he built a wall and turned the place into a fortress for his followers. In the valley called Paran, he enlarged many caves and found others already prepared for use.

He used these caves to store his treasures and the goods he had taken. Many of his followers lived there as well. Simon made no secret of the fact that he was training his men and preparing to attack Jerusalem.

5

The Zealots feared that Simon would attack them, so they decided to strike first. They went out against him with their weapons, hoping to destroy the man who was becoming powerful enough to oppose them.

Simon met them in battle, killed many of them, and drove the rest back into the city. He didn't trust his forces enough to attack the walls, so he decided to conquer Idumea first. By this time, he had twenty thousand armed men, and he marched toward the borders of the country.

The rulers of Idumea quickly gathered about twenty-five thousand of their strongest fighters. They left the rest of their people to guard the country against attacks by the Sicarii who lived at Masada.

The Idumeans met Simon at their border. They fought throughout the day, but neither side could tell whether it had won or lost. Simon returned to Nain, and the Idumeans went back home.

Not long afterward, Simon attacked their country again. He camped at a village called Thecoa and sent Eleazar, one of his companions, to the soldiers guarding Herodium. Eleazar was supposed to persuade them to surrender the fortress.

The soldiers welcomed him because they didn't know why he had come. As soon as he spoke about surrendering the fortress, they attacked him with drawn swords. When he realized there was no way to escape, Eleazar threw himself from the wall into the valley below and died at once.

The Idumeans were already frightened by Simon's growing power, so they decided to examine his army before risking another battle.

6

One of their commanders was a man named Jacob. He offered to serve the Idumeans, but he secretly intended to betray them.

Jacob left the village of Alurus, where the Idumean army had gathered, and went to Simon. From the beginning, he agreed to betray his country. He made Simon swear that he would always honor him, then promised to help bring all Idumea under Simon's rule.

Simon received him with a great feast. Jacob returned to his own people and first lied about the size of Simon's army, claiming that it was many times larger than it really was. He then persuaded the commanders, and gradually the whole army, to accept Simon and surrender the government to him without a battle.

Jacob sent messengers to invite Simon forward and promised to scatter the Idumeans. He kept that promise. When Simon's army came near, Jacob mounted his horse and fled with the men he had corrupted.

Fear spread through the entire Idumean army. Before the two sides could even join battle, the soldiers broke their ranks and each man fled to his own home.

7

Simon entered Idumea without bloodshed. He suddenly attacked Hebron and captured it. There he seized a large amount of treasure and carried away great quantities of fruit.

The people of the country say that Hebron is older than any other city in that land, and even older than Memphis in Egypt. They claim that it is two thousand three hundred years old. They also say that Abram, the ancestor of the Jews, lived there after leaving Mesopotamia.

According to their tradition, Abram's descendants later went down from there into Egypt. His monuments were still shown in that small city. They were built from the finest marble and made with great skill.

About six furlongs from the city stood a very large turpentine tree. People said that it had existed since the creation of the world.

From Hebron, Simon moved throughout Idumea. He ravaged the cities and villages and laid waste to the entire country. Besides his heavily armed soldiers, he had forty thousand other men following him, and he couldn't find enough food to feed such a huge crowd.

Simon was also a savage man who hated the people of that country. Because of this, Idumea suffered a terrible loss of population. After locusts pass over a forest, they leave the trees stripped of their leaves. Simon's army left the land in much the same condition.

They burned some places and destroyed others completely. They trampled on everything growing in the country or consumed it for food. Their marches hardened the cultivated ground until it was less useful than barren land. No sign remained in many places that anyone had ever lived there.

8

Simon's victories stirred the Zealots to action again. They were afraid to meet him in open battle, but they set ambushes along the roads and captured his wife and many of her attendants.

The Zealots returned to Jerusalem in triumph. They acted as if they had captured Simon himself and expected him to lay down his arms and beg them to release his wife.

Simon did not respond with mercy. He was enraged that they had taken the woman he loved. He went to the wall of Jerusalem and, like a wounded animal that can't catch the person who hurt it, took out his anger on everyone he met.

He seized people who had come out through the city gates to gather herbs or sticks. These people were unarmed, and many were old. In his fury, Simon tortured and killed them. He was almost willing to taste the flesh of their dead bodies.

He also cut off the hands of many others and sent them into the city to frighten his enemies. He wanted the people to rebel against the men who had captured his wife.

Simon ordered the mutilated men to tell the citizens that he swore by the God who sees everything: if they didn't return his wife, he would tear down the walls and punish every citizen in the same way. He would spare no age and make no distinction between the guilty and the innocent.

These threats terrified both the people and the Zealots. They returned Simon's wife to him. Simon became somewhat calmer and stopped his constant slaughter.

9

Sedition and civil war now spread through Judea and Italy. Galba had been killed in the middle of the Roman marketplace, and Otho became emperor. Vitellius also claimed the imperial title because the legions in Germany had chosen him.

Otho fought Vitellius's generals, Valens and Caecina, at Betriacum in Gaul. Otho won the first day's battle, but Vitellius's soldiers won on the second day. After suffering a heavy defeat, Otho killed himself when he heard the news at Brixia. He had ruled for three months and two days.

Otho's army joined Vitellius's generals, and Vitellius marched to Rome with his forces.

At the same time, Vespasian left Caesarea on the fifth day of the month Deasius, or Sivan, and marched against the parts of Judea that had not yet been destroyed. He entered the mountain country and captured the Gophnitic and Acrabattene toparchies.

He then took Bethel and Ephraim, two small cities. After placing garrisons in them, he rode as far as Jerusalem and captured many prisoners along the way.

Cerealis, one of Vespasian's commanders, took cavalry and infantry and laid waste to the part of Idumea called Upper Idumea. He attacked Caphethra, which claimed to be a small city, captured it at the first assault, and burned it.

He also attacked Caphatabira and laid siege to it. The city had a strong wall, so Cerealis expected the siege to last a long time. Suddenly, however, the people inside opened the gates, begged for mercy, and surrendered.

After conquering them, Cerealis went to Hebron, another very ancient city. I have already explained that it stood in the mountains not far from Jerusalem. Cerealis forced his way into the city and killed all the young men who remained there. He also burned the city.

By then, every place had been captured except Herodium, Masada, and Macherus. Those fortresses were still held by the robbers. Jerusalem was now the main target of the Romans.

10

As soon as Simon had recovered his wife from the Zealots, he returned to the remaining parts of Idumea. He drove the people before him from every direction and forced many of them to flee toward Jerusalem.

Simon followed them to the city and surrounded the walls once again. Whenever he found laborers coming in from the countryside, he killed them.

Simon outside the walls frightened the people more than the Romans did. Inside the walls, the Zealots oppressed them even more severely than Simon or the Romans.

During this time, John's wicked schemes and courage corrupted the Galileans. They had raised John to power, and he repaid them by letting them do whatever they wanted. Their desire to plunder had no limit. They searched the houses of the rich, murdered men, and abused women as if it were a game.

They consumed the spoils they had taken along with the blood of their victims. They gave themselves over to every kind of shameless behavior without restraint.

They dressed their hair, wore women's clothing, and covered themselves with perfumes. They painted their eyes and copied not only women's ornaments but also their lusts. They committed acts so filthy that they invented unlawful forms of pleasure.

They moved through the city as if it were a brothel and polluted it with their behavior. Their faces looked like women's faces, but they killed with their right hands. Their movements were feminine, yet they attacked men without warning. They drew swords from beneath their brightly dyed cloaks and stabbed anyone they came across.

Simon waited for those who escaped from John and was even more murderous than he was. Anyone who escaped the tyrant inside the walls was killed by the tyrant outside them. As a result, even those who wanted to desert to the Romans had no safe way to escape.

11

The army under John eventually rebelled against him. The Idumeans also broke away from the tyrant and tried to destroy him because they envied his power and hated his cruelty.

They gathered together, killed many of the Zealots, and drove the rest into the royal palace built by Grapte, a relative of Izates, the king of Adiabene. The Idumeans attacked the palace as well, forcing the Zealots out and into the Temple.

They then began plundering John's possessions. John himself had been in the palace, and he had stored there the spoils he had gained through his tyranny.

Meanwhile, the Zealots scattered throughout the city ran to the Temple and joined those who had fled there. John prepared to lead them against the people and the Idumeans.

The Idumeans weren't so much afraid of being attacked because they were better soldiers than the Zealots. They feared the Zealots' madness. They worried that the men might suddenly rush out of the Temple, fall among them, kill them, and set the city on fire.

The Idumeans gathered together with the high priests and discussed how they could defend themselves. But God turned their thoughts toward the worst possible advice. They came up with a remedy that was worse than the disease.

To overthrow John, they decided to invite Simon into the city. They eagerly chose to bring in a second tyrant.

They carried out this plan and sent Matthias, the high priest, to beg Simon to come to them, even though they had often feared him before. The people who had fled from the Zealots in Jerusalem also joined the request because they wanted to save their homes and possessions.

Simon arrogantly granted them his protection and entered the city to deliver it from the Zealots. The people welcomed him with joyful cries, calling him their savior and protector.

Once he entered with his army, however, Simon secured his own power. He considered the people who had invited him to be just as much his enemies as the men they had asked him to defeat.

12

Simon took control of Jerusalem in the third year of the war, during the month of Xanthicus, or Nisan.

John and his Zealots were trapped in the Temple. They couldn't leave, and they had lost control of the city because Simon and his followers had plundered them. They had little hope of escape.

With help from the people, Simon attacked the Temple. The Zealots stood on the cloisters and battlements and defended themselves from above.

Many of Simon's men were killed, and many more were wounded. From their higher position, the Zealots could throw their darts easily and rarely missed their targets.

They had already built four large towers so their weapons could be fired from even higher ground. One stood at the northeast corner of the Temple court. Another stood above the Xystus. The third stood at a corner opposite the lower city. The fourth was built above the top of the Pastophoria.

A priest regularly stood there and gave a signal with a trumpet. At twilight on the evening before every seventh day, he announced that the people should stop working. At twilight after the Sabbath, he gave the signal for them to begin working again.

The Zealots placed weapons on the towers that could throw darts and stones. Archers and slingers joined them there.

Simon continued attacking the Temple, but his assault became weaker because most of his men grew tired of the fighting. He still refused to withdraw because his army was larger than the force defending the Temple.

The Temple defenders, however, had the advantage of height. Their engines threw darts a great distance and killed many of Simon's soldiers.

CHAPTER 10

How the Soldiers in Judea and Egypt Proclaimed Vespasian Emperor, and How Vespasian Set Josephus Free

1

Around this same time, great disasters began to fall upon Rome from every side. Vitellius had come from Germany with his army, and a huge crowd of other men followed him. The quarters assigned to the soldiers could not hold them, so he turned the whole city of Rome into a military camp. Armed men filled the houses.

These soldiers had never seen such wealth before. Everywhere they looked, they saw silver and gold. They could hardly control their greed, and they were ready to rob anyone who stood in their way or to kill those who resisted them. This was the condition of Italy at that time.

2

After Vespasian had conquered all the places near Jerusalem, he returned to Caesarea. There he heard about the troubles in Rome and learned that Vitellius had become emperor.

Vespasian was outraged. He knew how to obey as well as how to command, and he couldn't accept Vitellius as his master. Vitellius had acted like a madman, seizing the government as though Rome had no ruler at all.

Vespasian's grief and anger became so strong that he could no longer bear the situation. He couldn't continue fighting other wars while his native country was being destroyed. His anger urged him to avenge Rome, but the distance held him back. Fortune might allow Vitellius to cause great damage before Vespasian could cross the sea and reach Italy, especially since it was still winter. Because of this, he forced himself to restrain his anger, no matter how fierce it had become.

3

Vespasian's commanders and soldiers began meeting in separate groups to discuss the condition of the empire. They openly talked about changing the government, and in their anger they said:

"At Rome, there are soldiers who live in comfort and luxury. They haven't even faced the dangers of war, yet they choose whatever governors they want and make men emperors whenever they expect some reward. Meanwhile, you have endured countless hardships and grown old beneath your helmets. You allow others to exercise this power, even though you have among yourselves a man more worthy to rule than anyone they have appointed.

"What better chance will you ever have to repay your generals than the one before you now? There are far better reasons for making Vespasian emperor than for accepting Vitellius. You yourselves are more deserving than the soldiers who raised Vitellius to power. You have fought wars as difficult as those fought by the troops from Germany. You are no less skilled in war than the men who brought that tyrant to Rome, and your hardships have been no smaller.

"The Roman Senate and the people of Rome will never accept an emperor as shameless as Vitellius when they can have Vespasian, a man of honorable conduct. They won't tolerate a cruel tyrant in place of a good ruler. Nor will they choose a man without children to govern them when they can choose a father. A king's children are the greatest security he can have, because their advancement gives him a strong reason to protect his kingdom.

"If we judge a ruler by the wisdom that comes with age, then Vespasian is the man we should choose. If we judge by the strength of youth, then Titus is the man. In this way, we will gain the advantage of both ages. Together, they will give strength to the empire.

"They already have three legions, along with the forces supplied by neighboring kings. They will also have the armies throughout the East, as well as those in Europe, since all these troops are beyond Vitellius's reach and fear. They may also gain support from Italy itself through Vespasian's brother and his other son, Domitian.

"Vespasian's brother can bring many important young men to his side. Domitian has been placed in charge of Rome, and that position will greatly help Vespasian gain control of the government.

"The situation may soon reach the point where, if we delay any longer, the Senate will choose an emperor whom the soldiers, the men who protect the empire, will despise."

4

The soldiers held these discussions in their separate groups. Then they gathered together in one large body. They encouraged one another, proclaimed Vespasian emperor, and urged him to save the government, which was in danger.

Vespasian had already been concerned about the safety of the empire for a long time. Yet he hadn't planned to make himself ruler. Although his actions had shown that he deserved the position, he preferred the safety of private life to the dangers that came with supreme power.

When he refused the empire, the commanders pressed him even harder to accept it. The soldiers surrounded him with drawn swords and threatened to kill him if he refused to live according to the rank they wished to give him.

For a long time, Vespasian showed that he didn't want the position. He tried to push this power away from himself. At last, when he saw that he couldn't persuade them, he gave in to their demands and allowed them to proclaim him emperor.

5

Mucianus and the other commanders urged Vespasian to accept the empire. The rest of the army also called out that they were ready to follow him against every opponent.

Vespasian first focused on gaining control of Alexandria. He knew that Egypt was essential to his effort to take the whole empire because Egypt supplied grain to Rome. If he controlled the grain supply, he believed he could overthrow Vitellius if Vitellius tried to hold the empire by force. Vitellius would not be able to maintain his position once the people of Rome began to suffer from hunger.

Vespasian also wanted to unite the two legions stationed at Alexandria with the legions already under his command. He considered Egypt a strong place of safety in case fortune turned against him. Egypt was difficult to invade by land, and its harbors were not easy to enter by sea.

To the west, Egypt was protected by the dry deserts of Libya. To the south stood Syene, which separated Egypt from Ethiopia, along with the cataracts of the Nile, which ships couldn't cross. To the east stretched the Red Sea, reaching as far as Coptus. To the north, Egypt was protected by the land extending toward Syria and by the body of water called the Egyptian Sea, which had no suitable harbors for ships.

In this way, Egypt was surrounded by natural defenses.

The land between Pelusium and Syene is two thousand furlongs long. By sea, the distance from Plinthine to Pelusium is three thousand six hundred furlongs. The Nile can be sailed as far as the city called Elephantine, but the cataracts prevent ships from going farther.

Even in peaceful times, sailors have difficulty entering the harbor of Alexandria. The entrance is narrow and filled with rocks beneath the water, so ships cannot follow a straight course. On the left side, man-made structures block the passage. On the right is the island called Pharos, which lies directly in front of the entrance.

A very tall tower stands on Pharos. At night, it displays a fire that can be seen by sailors as far as three hundred furlongs away. Because the entrance is so difficult, ships must anchor at a distance during the night rather than risk sailing closer.

Large piers have been built around the island. When the sea strikes them and its waves break against those barriers, navigation becomes difficult. The narrow entrance is dangerous, too. Once ships enter the harbor, however, they find it very safe. The harbor is thirty furlongs wide.

Everything Egypt needs is brought through this harbor. The surplus produced by the country is also shipped from there and distributed throughout the inhabited world.

6

Vespasian had good reason to seek control of Egypt, since it would strengthen his efforts to rule the whole empire. He immediately sent a message to Tiberius Alexander, who governed Egypt and Alexandria.

Vespasian told him what the army had forced him to accept. He explained that he had taken the burden of government against his own wishes and asked Alexander to become his ally and supporter.

As soon as Alexander read the letter, he ordered the legions and the people to swear loyalty to Vespasian. They willingly obeyed him because they already knew Vespasian's courage from his conduct in the neighboring regions.

Vespasian now considered himself ruler of the empire and began preparing for his journey to Rome. News of his elevation spread faster than anyone could have expected. People learned that he was emperor in the East, and every city held festivals, offered sacrifices, and presented gifts in celebration.

The legions stationed in Mysia and Pannonia had recently been troubled by Vitellius's bold attempt to seize power. They were pleased to swear loyalty to Vespasian as soon as they heard that he had become emperor.

Vespasian then left Caesarea and went to Berytus. Many embassies came to him from Syria and from other provinces. They brought crowns and messages of congratulations from their cities.

Mucianus, the governor of the province, also came to him. He told Vespasian how eagerly the people had received the news of his advancement and how the cities had sworn loyalty to him.

7

Vespasian's success followed his wishes everywhere. Most of the empire was already in his hands. As he considered what had happened, he understood that he hadn't gained the government by his own power alone. Divine Providence and a just fate had brought the empire under his rule.

He remembered the many signs that had foretold his rise to power. He also remembered what Josephus had told him while Nero was still alive, when Josephus had predicted that Vespasian would become emperor.

Vespasian was troubled by the fact that Josephus was still being held prisoner.

He called for Mucianus, along with his other commanders and friends. First, he told them how brave Josephus had been and how many hardships Josephus had endured during the siege of Jotapata.

Then Vespasian repeated Josephus's prophecy. At the time, he had suspected that Josephus was only inventing it because he was afraid. But events had now proved that the prophecy came from God.

"It is shameful," Vespasian said, "that this man, who foretold my rise to the empire and delivered a message from God to me, should still be kept as a captive and prisoner."

Vespasian then called for Josephus and ordered that he be set free.

The commanders were pleased by the honor Vespasian gave to a foreigner. Titus was with his father and said, "Father, Josephus should not only be released from his chains. The disgrace of having been held as a prisoner should also be removed. If we simply loosen his bonds, he may still appear to have been a prisoner. But if we cut the chain to pieces, it will be as though he had never been bound at all."

This was the usual way of clearing the reputation of a person who had been imprisoned without cause.

Vespasian agreed with Titus. A man was brought in and cut Josephus's chain into pieces. Josephus received this proof of his innocence as his reward, and people also came to regard him as a trustworthy prophet of future events.

CHAPTER 11

How Vespasian Hastened to Rome After Vitellius Was Defeated and Killed, While His Son Titus Returned to Jerusalem

1

After Vespasian had answered the embassies and assigned positions of authority fairly, according to each person's merits, he arrived at Antioch. There he considered which course he should take. He decided to travel to Rome instead of going to Alexandria. Alexandria was already secure for him, but affairs in Rome had fallen into disorder because of Vitellius. So he sent Mucianus into Italy with a large force of cavalry and infantry.

Mucianus was afraid to travel by sea because it was the middle of winter. He therefore led his army overland through Cappadocia and Phrygia.

At the same time, Antonius Primus took the third legion stationed in Mysia, where he was governor, and hurried forward to fight Vitellius. Vitellius sent Cecinna against him with a large army. He trusted Cecinna greatly because Cecinna had defeated Otho.

Cecinna left Rome in great haste and found Antonius near Cremona in Gaul, a city on the borders of Italy. When he saw that the enemy had many soldiers and that they were arranged in good order, he didn't dare to attack them. Since he thought retreat would be dangerous, he began planning to betray his own army to Antonius.

He gathered the centurions and tribunes under his command and urged them to join Antonius. To persuade them, he weakened Vitellius's reputation and exaggerated Vespasian's power. He told them that Vitellius had only the name of rule, while Vespasian possessed the strength that went with it. It was better, he said, to avoid the danger before the battle began, win favor, and willingly go over to Antonius rather than wait to be defeated.

Vespasian, Cecinna argued, could conquer the provinces that had not yet submitted even without their help. Vitellius, on the other hand, couldn't hold on to the provinces he already possessed, even with their assistance.

2

Cecinna said these things and much more, and he persuaded the officers to follow him. He and his army deserted Vitellius. But that very night, the soldiers regretted what they had done. They feared that Vitellius might still defeat Vespasian, and they drew their swords against Cecinna, intending to kill him.

They would have carried it out if the tribunes hadn't thrown themselves at the soldiers' feet and begged them to stop. The soldiers spared Cecinna, but they bound him as a traitor and prepared to send him to Vitellius.

When Antonius Primus heard what had happened, he immediately armed his men and led them against the soldiers who had revolted. Those soldiers formed a battle line and resisted for a short time, but they were soon defeated and fled to Cremona.

Primus then took his cavalry and blocked their entrance into the city. He surrounded and killed a great number of them outside the walls, then entered the city with the rest of his army. He allowed his soldiers to plunder Cremona.

Many strangers, including merchants, and many local residents were killed. Vitellius lost his entire army, numbering 30,200 men. Antonius lost only 4,500 of the soldiers who had come with him from Mysia.

Afterward, Antonius released Cecinna and sent him to Vespasian with news of the victory. Vespasian received him kindly and covered the shame of his treachery with unexpected honors.

3

When Antonius's approach became known, Sabinus gained courage in Rome. He gathered the soldiers who guarded the city at night and seized the Capitol during the night. When morning came, many prominent men joined him, including Domitian, the son of his brother. Domitian's support greatly helped Sabinus in his attempt to gain control of the government.

Vitellius wasn't greatly troubled by Antonius Primus at first, but he was furious with those who had joined Sabinus. Driven by his natural cruelty and thirst for the blood of noblemen, he sent the part of his army that had come with him to attack the Capitol.

Many brave deeds were done on both sides, by the soldiers attacking the temple and by those defending it. In the end, the soldiers from Germany were too numerous for their opponents. They seized the hill where Domitian and many other leading Romans had taken refuge. Domitian escaped by good fortune, but the rest of the crowd was cut down.

Sabinus himself was taken to Vitellius and killed. The soldiers stripped the temple of its ornaments and set it on fire.

Within a day, Antonius arrived with his army. Vitellius and his forces met him, and a battle was fought in three different places. Vitellius's soldiers were destroyed.

Vitellius then came out of the palace. He was drunk and full from an extravagant meal, as if he were already facing his final hour. The crowd dragged him through the streets and subjected him to every kind of abuse and torture. At last, he was beheaded in the middle of Rome.

He had ruled for eight months and five days. If he had lived much longer, I believe the empire itself would not have been enough to satisfy his desires. More than 50,000 others were killed in the fighting.

The battle took place on the third day of the month Apelleus, which the Romans call Casleu. The next day, Mucianus entered Rome with his army and ordered Antonius and his soldiers to stop killing. They were still searching houses and killing many of Vitellius's soldiers. They also killed many ordinary people because they assumed they belonged to Vitellius's party, and their anger kept them from telling one group from another.

Mucianus then brought Domitian before the people and commended him to them until his father should arrive. The people, now free from fear, celebrated Vespasian as their emperor. They held festivals to confirm his rule and to celebrate the destruction of Vitellius.

4

While Vespasian was in Alexandria, news of the victory reached him from Rome. Embassies also arrived from every part of the inhabited world under his authority to congratulate him on becoming emperor.

Alexandria was the greatest city after Rome, yet even it couldn't hold the crowds that gathered there. Vespasian's rule was now secure, and the Roman state had unexpectedly been rescued from destruction. He therefore turned his attention to the part of Judea that had not yet been conquered.

Vespasian hurried toward Rome because winter was nearly over. He quickly arranged the affairs of Alexandria, then sent his son Titus with a select part of the army to destroy Jerusalem.

Titus traveled on foot as far as Nicopolis, which was 20 furlongs from Alexandria. There he placed his army aboard long ships and sailed along the river through the Mendesian district until he reached the city of Tumuis.

Titus and his soldiers left the ships and continued on foot. They spent the night in a small city called Tanis. Their second stop was Heracleopolis, and their third was Pelusium. Titus rested the army there for two days. On the third day, they crossed the mouths of the Nile near Pelusium.

They then traveled one station across the desert and camped at the temple of Casian Jupiter. The following day, they camped at Ostracine. That place had no water, so the local people depended on water carried in from elsewhere.

After that, Titus rested at Rhinocolura. From there, he went to Raphia, his fourth station. Raphia is the beginning of Syria.

For his fifth station, Titus camped at Gaza. He then traveled to Ascalon, from there to Jamnia, and afterward to Joppa. From Joppa he went to Caesarea, where he planned to gather all his remaining forces.

PREFACE

 

Book 1

Book 2

Book 3

Book 4

Book 5

 

Book 6

 

Book 7