Antiquities of the Jews - Book 3

 

BOOK III

Containing the Two-Year Period

From the Exodus from Egypt to the Rejection of That Generation

CHAPTER 1

How Moses Led the People to Mount Sinai After Bringing Them Out of Egypt, Though They Suffered Greatly on the Way

After the Hebrews had won such a remarkable deliverance, the land through which they had to travel brought them great hardship. It was all desert, with no food to sustain them and very little water. There was not enough for the people, much less for their livestock. The land was dry and cracked, with no moisture to nourish plants. Since they had no other route, they were forced to cross this barren country.

Their guide had told them to carry water from the land they had passed through, and they had done so. But once their supply ran out, they had to draw water from wells, a difficult task because the ground was so hard. The water they found was bitter and unfit to drink, and there was very little of it. Late one evening, they reached a place called Marah, named for the bitterness of its water, since mar means bitterness.

By then, they were worn down by the long journey and had run out of food. They decided to stay there because they found a well. Though it could not supply such a large company, it gave them some hope in that desert, especially after they heard from those who had searched ahead that they would find nothing farther on. But the water was bitter and undrinkable, even for their animals.

Moses saw how deeply discouraged the people had become. Their suffering was real, and they were not a well-ordered army of men able to meet hardship with courage. The great number of children and women, too young or too weak to be reasoned with, discouraged the men as well. Moses was troubled, and he took their suffering upon himself. The people gathered around him and begged him to find some way to help them. The women pleaded for their infants, and the men pleaded for their wives.

Moses prayed to God, asking him to change the water and make it drinkable. God granted his request. Moses took a piece of wood lying at his feet, split it lengthwise, and lowered it into the well. He told the Hebrews that God had heard his prayer and would make the water fit to drink, provided they obeyed what he commanded with care and diligence. When they asked what they had to do, he told the strongest men among them to draw water from the well. He said that once most of it had been drawn out, the water left behind would be fit to drink. They worked until the water had been stirred and cleared enough for them to drink.

They left that place and came to Elim. From a distance, it looked promising, with a grove of palm trees. But when they reached it, they found it was a poor place. There were only seventy palm trees, and they were stunted and weak for lack of water. The surrounding country was parched, and the twelve springs nearby were little more than damp spots. They did not rise from the ground or flow, so they could not water the trees properly. When the people dug in the sand, they found no water. The few drops they managed to collect were muddy and useless.

The trees were too weak to bear fruit because they had not received enough water to nourish them. The people blamed Moses and complained bitterly. They said their miserable condition and all their troubles came from following him. They had now been traveling for thirty days and had used up all the provisions they had brought. Since they had found no relief, they were overcome with despair. They focused only on their present hardship and forgot the deliverances God had already given them through Moses' courage and wisdom. In their anger, they prepared to stone him, seeing him as the cause of their suffering.

The crowd was furious and turned against Moses, but he continued to trust in God and in the care he had shown his people. He went among them even as they shouted against him and raised stones to kill him. Moses was pleasant in appearance and skilled at speaking to the people. He began to calm their anger and urged them not to let their present suffering erase the memory of the good things God had done for them.

He told them not to forget the great gifts they had received from God because of their present distress. They should expect help in the troubles they could not overcome on their own, trusting in the care of God, who watched over them. God might be testing their courage and patience through hardship, Moses said, to see whether they could endure and whether they remembered his past acts of kindness.

Their behavior showed, he told them, that they lacked both patience and gratitude. At times they had dishonored God and disobeyed his commands, even though those commands had led them out of Egypt. At other times they had treated Moses badly, though he was God's servant and had never deceived them in anything he said or commanded them to do.

He reminded them of all that had happened. The Egyptians had been destroyed when they tried to hold the Hebrews back against God's command. The same river that became bloody and undrinkable for the Egyptians had been sweet and drinkable for the Hebrews. The sea had opened a new path for them, drawing back before them, and through that path they had been saved while their enemies perished. When they had needed weapons, God had provided them. Moses recalled each occasion when they seemed close to destruction but had been saved by God's power.

God's power had not changed, he said, and they should not despair of his care. They should remain calm and understand that help was not too late if it came before they suffered a greater disaster, even if it did not come at once. God was delaying his aid, not because he had forgotten them, but because he wished to test their courage and their love of freedom. Would they endure hunger and a shortage of water for the sake of their freedom? Or would they rather be slaves, like cattle owned and well fed only so they could serve their masters?

Moses said he was not concerned for his own life. If he died unjustly, he would not consider it a hardship. He feared for the people, because by throwing stones at him they might be seen as condemning God himself.

Moses' words calmed the people and kept them from stoning him. They regretted what they had been about to do. Since their desperate need had made their anger less blameworthy, Moses decided to pray to God for them. He went up to a high place and asked God to help the people and deliver them from their need. Their hope of rescue rested in God alone. He asked God to forgive what necessity had driven them to do, since human beings are hard to satisfy and quick to complain when adversity comes.

God promised to care for them and give them the help they wanted. When Moses heard this, he came down to the people. They saw that he was glad because of God's promise, and their sorrowful faces brightened. Moses stood among them and said he had come with God's assurance that their troubles would be relieved.

Soon afterward, a great flock of quail arrived. This bird is more abundant in the Arabian Gulf than anywhere else. The quail flew over the sea and hovered above the people until they grew tired from their long flight. As they usually flew close to the ground, they fell among the Hebrews, who caught them and ate their fill. The people understood that God had provided food for them in this way. Moses thanked God for helping them so quickly, even sooner than he had promised.

Soon after this first gift of food, God sent them another. As Moses raised his hands in prayer, dew fell. When it clung to his hands, he understood that God had sent it as food for the people. They did not know what it was. They thought it was snow, or something that usually fell at that season. Moses told them it had not fallen in the ordinary way, but had been sent for their survival and nourishment.

He tasted it and gave some to the people so they could see for themselves. They followed his example and enjoyed the food. It was sweet like honey, with a texture like bdellium, a sweet spice, and was about the size of coriander seed. The people eagerly gathered it, but Moses ordered them to collect equal shares, an omer for each person each day. He did this so the weaker people would not lose their share to those who were stronger and quicker at gathering.

The strong gathered more than the amount set for them, but they gained nothing by doing so. Each person had only an omer, and the extra effort brought no reward. Any food left over spoiled. Worms bred in it, and it turned bitter. This food was a remarkable gift from God, and it took the place of other kinds of food for those who ate it.

Even now, manna falls like rain throughout that region, as Moses had asked God to send it to the people for their support. The Hebrews call this food manna, because in their language man is a question, meaning, "What is this?" The Hebrews rejoiced over the food sent from heaven. They ate it for forty years, or for as long as they remained in the wilderness.

When they left that place, they came to Rephidim, where they suffered terribly from thirst. On earlier days, they had found a few small springs, but now the land was completely without water, and they were in a desperate state. Once again, they turned their anger against Moses. He first avoided the crowd's fury, then prayed to God. He asked that, just as God had given them food when they were in great need, he would also provide them with water. Food was no help to them while they had nothing to drink.

God did not make them wait long. He promised Moses that he would bring forth a spring, with plenty of water, from an unexpected place. God told him to strike the rock they saw there with his staff, and water would flow from it in abundance. God had arranged for them to drink without effort or labor.

After receiving this command, Moses went to the people, who were waiting and watching as he hurried down from the high place. When he arrived, he told them God would free them from their present distress and had granted them an unexpected favor. A stream would flow from the rock for their sake.

The people were astonished. They thought they would have to break the rock apart because of their thirst and the hardship of their journey. But Moses struck it only once with his staff, opening a passage from which a great flow of clear water burst forth. The people stared in wonder, and the sight itself seemed to quench their thirst. They drank the pleasant, sweet water, which seemed especially good because God had provided it. They marveled at the honor God had shown Moses and offered sacrifices in gratitude for his care.

The Scripture kept in the temple tells how God foretold to Moses that water would flow from the rock in this way.

CHAPTER 2

How the Amalekites and Neighboring Nations Made War on the Hebrews, Were Defeated, and Lost Much of Their Army

The Hebrews' name had already become widely known, and reports about them spread through the surrounding lands. The people who lived there grew alarmed. They sent messengers to one another, urging each other to defend their lands and destroy the Hebrews.

The ones who first persuaded the others to take action were the people of Gobolitis and Petra. They were called Amalekites, and they were the most warlike nation in the region. Their kings urged one another and their neighbors to go to war against the Hebrews. They said that an army of strangers, escaped from slavery in Egypt, had come to ruin them. No one concerned for his own safety, they said, should ignore such an army. They should crush it before it grew strong and prosperous.

The Amalekites also warned that the Hebrews might attack first, counting on their neighbors' failure to strike them sooner. The nations should avenge what the Hebrews had done in the wilderness, they said, before the Hebrews reached their cities and took their goods. It was wiser to crush a rising power than to stop it after it had grown formidable. Those who waited until their enemies had grown strong might seem merely jealous of their success, while those who acted early left their enemies no chance to become a threat. After sending these messages to their neighbors and to one another, the nations decided to attack the Hebrews.

These preparations troubled Moses, who had not expected a war. When the nations were ready to fight, the Hebrews had no choice but to face them. They were in confusion and lacked supplies, yet they had to fight men who were fully prepared for battle.

Moses encouraged them to be brave and trust in God's help. God, he reminded them, had already freed them from slavery, and they could hope for victory over those who meant to take away that freedom. They should consider their own army numerous and well supplied, lacking none of the weapons, money, food, or other provisions that give soldiers courage. They should count God's help as all these things and more. They should think of the enemy army as small, poorly armed, and weak, lacking the supplies that an army needs when God wills it to be defeated.

They had seen the value of God's help through many trials, Moses said, trials more frightening than war. War was fought against men, but they had also faced hunger and thirst, hardships that seemed impossible to overcome, as well as mountains and a sea that offered no path of escape. Yet God's kindness had brought them through every difficulty. Moses urged them to stand firm now and understand that their future success depended on defeating their enemies.

With these words, Moses encouraged the people. They gathered their tribal leaders and other chiefs, both in separate groups and together. He told the young men to obey their elders and the elders to listen to their leader. The people took heart and prepared to test their strength in battle, hoping at last to free themselves from all their troubles. They asked Moses to lead them against their enemies at once, so that no delay could weaken their resolve.

Moses divided all the men fit for war into companies and placed Joshua, son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, in command. Joshua was brave, patient in hardship, and wise in both judgment and speech. He was devoted to the worship of God and, in his teaching of devotion to God, was much like Moses.

Moses also assigned a small group of armed men to stay near the water and guard the children, the women, and the rest of the camp. The people spent the night preparing for battle. Those who had well-made weapons took them, and all waited for their commanders, ready to charge as soon as Moses gave the order.

Moses stayed awake, teaching Joshua how to arrange the camp. At daybreak, he called Joshua again and urged him to prove by his actions that he deserved the reputation he had earned. He told him to win the respect of his men through his conduct in the battle. Moses also encouraged the leading men and the whole army, which stood armed before him. After preparing everything and raising the army's spirits with his words and actions, he went up to a mountain and entrusted the army to God and Joshua.

The armies met, and the battle became a close, hand-to-hand fight. Both sides fought with great energy and urged one another on. As long as Moses held his hands toward heaven, the Hebrews had the advantage over the Amalekites. But Moses could not keep his hands raised without tiring. Whenever he lowered them, the Hebrews began to lose ground.

So he told his brother Aaron and Hur, the husband of their sister Miriam, to stand on either side of him and hold up his hands, keeping them raised when he grew tired. With their help, the Hebrews defeated the Amalekites by force. The Amalekites might all have been killed if nightfall had not forced the Hebrews to stop fighting.

Our ancestors won a great victory at a time when they needed it most. They defeated their attackers, frightened the neighboring nations, and gained rich rewards through their hard work in battle. After taking the enemy camp, they found a great deal of booty for the community and their own families. Until then, they had lacked even an abundance of basic food.

This battle began their prosperity, both at that time and in the years to come. They took their enemies captive and broke their spirit, and after the battle they became feared by all who lived nearby. They also gained a great amount of wealth. In the enemy camp they found silver and gold, bronze vessels used in households, embroidered goods and other woven items, armor decorations, household tools, furnishings, livestock, and other supplies commonly carried by armies moving from place to place.

The Hebrews took pride in their courage and believed they had earned great honor through their bravery. They continued to train themselves to endure hardship, convinced that hard work could overcome every difficulty. Such were the results of the battle.

The next day, Moses stripped the bodies of the enemy dead, gathered the weapons left behind by those who had fled, and rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves in battle. He praised Joshua, their commander, whose great deeds the whole army had witnessed. Not one Hebrew had been killed, while the enemy dead were too numerous to count.

Moses offered sacrifices of thanks to God and built an altar, which he named "The Lord Is the Conqueror." He also declared that the Amalekites would be destroyed and that none of them would remain, because they had fought against the Hebrews in the wilderness, when the people were in distress. Then he held a feast for the army.

This was the first battle the Hebrews fought against those who opposed them after they left Egypt. When Moses had celebrated the victory, he let the people rest for a few days. Then he led them onward in battle formation, for they now had many soldiers equipped with light armor. They traveled by stages and reached Mount Sinai three months after leaving Egypt. As related earlier, it was at this mountain that Moses had seen the burning bush and witnessed the other wonders.

CHAPTER 3

Moses Welcomes His Father-in-Law Jethro at Mount Sinai

When Raguel, Moses's father-in-law, learned that Moses's affairs were prospering, he gladly went to meet him. Moses welcomed him, along with his children, and rejoiced at his arrival. After offering a sacrifice, Moses prepared a feast for the people near the bush he had seen before. Each family joined in the meal.

Aaron and his family welcomed Raguel and sang hymns to God, who had brought them deliverance and freedom. They also praised Moses, their leader, whose courage had helped everything go well for them. In his speech of thanks to Moses, Raguel praised the whole people. He admired Moses's courage and the kindness he had shown in delivering his own people.

CHAPTER 4

How Raguel Advised Moses to Organize the People Under Rulers of Thousands and Hundreds, Since They Had Lived Without Order, and How Moses Followed His Father-in-Law's Advice

The next day, Raguel saw Moses surrounded by people bringing him their disputes. Everyone came to him, believing they could get justice only if Moses judged their case. Those who lost accepted his decision, because they believed they had lost fairly and not through favoritism.

Raguel said nothing at the time, since he did not want to keep anyone from seeking help from their leader. Later, however, he took Moses aside and advised him on what he should do. He told him to leave lesser cases to others and focus on the more important matters and the safety of the people. Many Hebrews, he said, were capable of judging disputes, but no one besides Moses could care for the safety of so many tens of thousands.

"Do not overlook your own worth, or what you have done under God's direction to preserve the people. Let others settle ordinary disputes, while you give yourself to serving God and finding ways to protect the multitude from their present troubles. Follow the plan I suggest for managing the people. Review the army and appoint trusted leaders over groups of ten thousand, then over groups of a thousand. Divide the people further into groups of five hundred, one hundred, fifty, thirty, twenty, and ten, with a leader over each group. Choose men whom the whole people have tested and approved as good and just. Let these leaders settle disputes among the people. If a serious case comes up, let them bring it before a leader of higher rank. If a matter proves too difficult for even those leaders, let them bring it to you. This plan will bring two benefits: the Hebrews will receive justice, and you will be free to attend continually to God and seek His favor for the people."

This was Raguel's advice. Moses gladly accepted it and followed his plan. He did not hide who had devised this system or claim the credit for himself. Instead, he told the people who had come up with it. He even named Raguel in the books he wrote as the man who organized the people in this way. Moses thought it right to give an honest account of worthy men, though he could have gained praise by claiming another man's idea as his own. This shows Moses' virtuous character, which we will have occasion to discuss elsewhere in these books.

CHAPTER 5

How Moses Went Up Mount Sinai, Received Laws from God, and Delivered Them to the Hebrews

Moses called the people together and told them he was going up Mount Sinai to speak with God. He would receive a message from Him and bring it back to them. He ordered them to pitch their tents near the mountain, choosing the place closest to God rather than one farther away.

After saying this, Moses climbed Mount Sinai, the tallest mountain in that region. Its great height and steep cliffs made it extremely difficult to climb. Even looking at it caused pain in the eyes. The mountain was also frightening and hard to approach because people said that God lived there.

The Hebrews moved their tents as Moses had commanded and settled near the foot of the mountain. They looked forward to his return, expecting him to bring promises of the good things he had told them about. They feasted as they waited for their leader, kept themselves pure in other ways, and stayed apart from their wives for three days, as Moses had ordered. They prayed that God would welcome Moses and give them a gift that would help them live well. They also prepared richer meals than usual and dressed their wives and children in finer clothes.

They spent two days feasting in this way. On the third day, before sunrise, a cloud unlike any they had seen before spread over the Hebrew camp and covered the place where they had pitched their tents. The rest of the sky remained clear, but strong winds rose and brought heavy rain. A fierce storm followed. Lightning flashed so terribly that those who saw it were afraid, and thunder and its bolts came down from the sky. These signs showed that God was present and ready to show favor to those for whom Moses had asked it.

My readers may think what they like about these events, but I must tell the story as it is written in the sacred books. The sight and the strange, terrible sounds filled the Hebrews with fear, for they had never seen or heard anything like them. The stories that God visited the mountain made them even more afraid. They stayed sorrowfully in their tents, thinking that Moses had been destroyed by God's anger and fearing that the same fate would come upon them.

While the people were afraid, Moses appeared, joyful and full of confidence. When they saw him, their fear left them, and they began to hope for better things. The air also cleared and settled when he appeared. Moses called the people together so they could hear what God had to say. When they had gathered, he stood on a rise where everyone could hear him and said:

"God has welcomed me, O Hebrews, as He did before. He has shown me a good way for you to live and a form of government, and He is now present in the camp. For His sake, for the things He has done, and for all that we have accomplished through Him, I charge you not to dismiss what I am about to tell you. Do not think less of these commands because I am the one who delivers them, or because they come to you in the words of a man. If you understand the great importance of these commands, you will recognize the greatness of the One who gave them and who chose to share them with me for the good of us all.

"The giver of these commands is not simply Moses, the son of Amram and Jochebed. He is the One who made the Nile run with blood for your sake and humbled the Egyptians with many kinds of plagues. He made a path for us through the sea. When we lacked food, He sent it from heaven; when we had little water, He brought it out of a rock. He gave Adam the fruits of the earth and the sea. Through Him, Noah survived the flood. He made our ancestor Abraham, once a wandering stranger, heir to the land of Canaan. He gave Isaac to parents who were very old. He blessed Jacob with twelve worthy sons. He raised Joseph to great power among the Egyptians. It is He who gives you these instructions through me, as His interpreter.

"Hold these laws in honor, and guard them more carefully than you guard your own children and wives. If you obey them, you will live happily. You will enjoy a fertile land and a calm sea, and your children will be born whole, as nature intends. Your enemies will fear you. I have been admitted into God's presence and heard His undying voice. This shows how much He cares for your people and for their future."

After speaking, Moses brought the people, with their wives and children, close to the mountain so they could hear God Himself speak the commandments they were to obey. He wanted them to hear the words directly, rather than through a man's voice, which could not convey them fully. They all heard a voice from above, and not one of the words escaped them. Moses wrote the commandments on two tablets. We are not permitted to quote them exactly, but we will give their meaning.

The first commandment teaches that there is only one God and that we must worship Him alone. The second forbids us to make an image of any living thing and worship it. The third commands us not to swear falsely by God. The fourth tells us to keep the seventh day holy by resting from every kind of work. The fifth commands us to honor our parents. The sixth forbids murder. The seventh forbids adultery. The eighth forbids theft. The ninth forbids bearing false witness. The tenth forbids us to desire anything that belongs to another person.

When the people heard God Himself give the commandments Moses had spoken of, they rejoiced. Then the gathering broke up. Over the next few days, they came to Moses' tent and asked him to bring them more laws from God. Moses gave them laws and explained how they should act in different situations. I will discuss those laws at the proper time, but I will save most of them for another work, where I will explain them separately.

After these things, Moses went up Mount Sinai again, as he had told the people he would. They watched him climb the mountain. He stayed there for a long time, absent from them for forty days, and the Hebrews became afraid that something had happened to him. Nothing troubled them more than the thought that Moses had died.

The people had different ideas about what had happened. Some said he had been killed by wild animals. Most of those who believed this were already hostile toward him. Others said he had gone to God. The wiser people did not accept either explanation without question. They knew that people sometimes fell prey to wild animals, but they also thought it possible that Moses, because of his virtue, had gone to God. They waited to see what would happen. Still, they grieved at the thought that they had lost their leader and protector, someone they could never replace. Their fear left them little hope, and they could not keep from feeling sorrow and despair. Yet they did not dare move the camp, because Moses had ordered them to stay there.

When the forty days and nights had passed, Moses came down from the mountain. He had eaten none of the food people normally need to live. His return filled the people with joy. He told them how much God cared for them and explained how they could live happily by following His instructions.

During the time Moses was away, God had also told him to build a tabernacle. God would come down into it when He visited them, and they would carry it with them whenever they moved from that place. They would no longer need to go up Mount Sinai, because God would come and dwell among them. He would be present when they prayed. God had shown Moses the tabernacle's measurements and design, and Moses told the people to begin the work and carry it out with care.

After this, Moses showed them the two tablets, with the Ten Commandments engraved on them, five on each tablet. The writing was the work of God Himself.

CHAPTER 6

The Tabernacle Moses Built in the Wilderness in Honor of God, Which Was Like a Temple

The Israelites rejoiced at what they had seen and heard from their leader, and they eagerly gave what they could to the work. They brought silver, gold, bronze, and the finest kinds of wood, chosen because they would not rot. They also brought camel hair, sheep skins dyed blue or scarlet, dyes for purple and white, wool dyed with those colors, fine linen, and precious stones set in gold by those skilled in making costly ornaments. They brought a great quantity of spices as well.

Moses used these materials to build the tabernacle, which was much like a temple that could be taken apart and moved. Once everything had been gathered with great care, Moses appointed the builders at God's command. They were the very men the people themselves would have chosen. Their names are recorded in the sacred books: Besaleel, son of Uri, of the tribe of Judah and grandson of Miriam, the sister of their leader; and Aholiab, son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan.

The people worked so eagerly that Moses had to stop them. He announced that the artisans had reported that enough materials had been brought. Then they began building the tabernacle. Following God's instructions, Moses told them its measurements and size, as well as the number of vessels it needed for the sacrifices. The women also worked eagerly, making the priests' garments and the other things needed for the work, both for its adornment and for the service of God.

When everything was ready, including the gold, silver, bronze, and woven materials, Moses first announced a festival. He ordered that each person offer sacrifices according to his means, then raised the tabernacle. He measured out an open court fifty cubits wide and a hundred cubits long. Around it he set bronze pillars, five cubits high: twenty along each long side and ten along the back. Each pillar had a ring. Their tops were silver, and their bases were bronze, shaped like the pointed ends of spears and fixed in the ground.

Cords passed through the rings and were tied at the other ends to bronze stakes, each a cubit long. One stake was driven into the ground at each pillar to keep the tabernacle from swaying in strong winds. A curtain of fine, soft linen hung from the tops of the pillars, draping around them and enclosing the whole court like a wall.

This was how three sides of the enclosure were made. The fourth side, which was fifty cubits long, formed the front. Its entrance was twenty cubits wide, with two pillars on either side, like open gates. These pillars were made entirely of polished silver, except for their bronze bases. On each side of the entrance stood three more pillars, set into the hollow bases and fitted to them. A curtain of fine linen ran around these pillars. The gate curtain itself was twenty cubits long and five cubits high. It was made of purple, scarlet, and blue cloth, along with fine linen, and embroidered with many kinds of designs, but no figures of animals.

Inside the entrance stood the bronze laver, with a basin beneath it made of the same metal. The priests used it to wash their hands and sprinkle their feet. This was the enclosure around the tabernacle court, which stood under the open sky.

Moses placed the tabernacle in the center of the court, with its front facing east, so that the rising sun would cast its first rays upon it. When set up, it was thirty cubits long and twelve [ten] cubits wide. One wall faced south, another faced north, and the back stood toward the west. Its height was to be ten cubits, equal to its breadth.

The walls were made of wooden pillars, twenty on each side. Each pillar was square, a cubit and a half wide and four fingers thick. Thin plates of gold covered both sides, inside and out. Each pillar had two tenons fitted into silver bases, each base having a socket for a tenon. Six pillars formed the back wall.

The tenons and sockets fitted together so closely that the joints could not be seen. The pillars appeared to form one solid wall, and they were covered with gold both inside and out. The two long sides each had twenty pillars. Together, their measurements made up the full thirty cubits. The six pillars at the back made up only nine cubits, so two more pillars were made, each a cubit wide, and set in the corners. They were finished to match the others.

Gold rings were fastened to the outer faces of the pillars, arranged in rows facing one another. Gilded bars, each five cubits long, passed through the rings and bound the pillars together. The end of one bar fitted into the next, like one tenon joined to another. Across the back wall, a single row of bars ran through all the pillars. The ends of the bars from the long walls fitted into this row, with each joint secured by matching parts. The whole structure was fastened so firmly that neither wind nor anything else could shake it.

Moses divided the tabernacle's length into three parts. Ten cubits from the innermost end, he set four pillars, made like the others and standing on matching bases. They were placed a short distance apart. The space beyond them was the Most Holy Place. The rest of the tabernacle was open to the priests.

The measurements of the tabernacle imitated the structure of the world. The third part beyond the four pillars, where the priests were not permitted to enter, was like heaven, set apart for God. The other twenty cubits were like the sea and the land where people live, and this part was reserved for the priests.

At the entrance, Moses set seven gold pillars on bronze bases. Over the tabernacle he spread embroidered curtains of fine linen, purple, blue, and scarlet. The first curtain measured ten cubits on each side. It hung over the pillars that divided the tabernacle and concealed the Most Holy Place, keeping it hidden from view.

The whole building was called the Holy Place. The part within the four pillars, which no one was allowed to enter, was called the Holy of Holies. The curtain was richly decorated with flowers of every kind that grew from the earth and with other designs, but it had no figures of animals.

Another curtain covered the five pillars at the entrance. It matched the first in size, material, and color. Rings fastened it to each pillar, holding it halfway down. The lower half left a way for the priests to enter by stooping beneath it. A fine linen curtain of the same size was placed over this one. Cords and rings allowed it to be drawn open or closed and tied back at the corners. On solemn days it could be pulled aside so the sanctuary could be seen. On other days, especially when snow threatened, it could be spread out to protect the colored curtain beneath it. From this custom came the practice of drawing a fine linen curtain over the entrances after the temple was built.

The ten other curtains were four cubits wide and twenty-eight cubits long. Gold clasps joined them so closely that they looked like one continuous curtain. They covered the roof and the upper parts of the walls at the sides and back, reaching to within one cubit of the ground.

Other curtains, made of the same width but one more in number, were longer, measuring thirty cubits. They were woven from hair as skillfully as the wool curtains. These hung loosely down to the ground, forming a triangular covering over the entrance. The eleventh curtain was used for this purpose. Above them were coverings made of skins, which protected the woven curtains from heat and rain. Those who saw the coverings from a distance were amazed, for they appeared to be the color of the sky. The curtains of hair and skin reached down like the curtain at the entrance, shielding the tabernacle from the sun and rain. This was how the tabernacle was set up.

Moses also had an ark made for God from strong wood that would not decay. In our language it was called Eron. It was five spans long, and three spans wide and high. Gold covered it inside and out, hiding the wood completely.

A lid was fitted to it with gold hinges. It was made to fit the ark evenly, with no raised parts to keep it from closing tightly. Each of its longer sides had two gold rings that passed through the wood. Gilded bars ran through the rings so the ark could be carried whenever needed. It was not placed on a cart and drawn by animals. The priests carried it on their shoulders.

On the lid were two figures that the Hebrews call cherubim. They were winged beings, but their shape did not resemble any creature known to people. Moses said he had seen such beings near God's throne. Inside the ark he placed the two tablets on which the Ten Commandments were written, five commandments on each tablet, arranged two and a half on each side. He placed the ark in the Most Holy Place.

In the Holy Place Moses set a table like those at Delphi. It was two cubits long, one cubit wide, and three spans high. It had legs whose lower parts were shaped like the feet the Dorians put on their beds. The upper parts, where they joined the table, were square.

The table had a raised border on every side, four fingers deep, running around both its upper and lower parts. A ring was fitted to each leg near the top. Gilded wooden bars passed through them beneath the table and could be removed when needed. The rings were open rather than complete circles, with pointed ends. One end fitted into a raised part of the table and the other into the leg. The priests carried the table by these bars when they traveled.

The table stood on the north side of the tabernacle, not far from the Most Holy Place. Twelve unleavened loaves were placed on it, six in each stack, one loaf on top of another. Each loaf was made from two tenth-deals of the finest flour. The tenth-deal, called an omer by the Hebrews, held seven Athenian cotyloes. Two vessels filled with frankincense were placed above the loaves.

After seven days, new loaves took the place of the old ones, on the day we call the Sabbath, for we call the seventh day the Sabbath. We will explain elsewhere why the loaves were placed here.

Across from the table, near the southern wall, stood a candlestick made of cast gold. It was hollow inside and weighed one hundred pounds. The Hebrews called this weight a chinchares, which in Greek means a talent.

The candlestick was decorated with buds, lilies, pomegranates, and bowls, seventy ornaments in all. Its central shaft rose from a single base and branched out to match the number of planets, including the sun. At the top it ended in seven heads, arranged in a row and parallel to one another. Each held a lamp, making seven lamps in all, like the number of planets. The lamps faced east and south, while the candlestick itself stood at an angle.

Between the candlestick and the table, both of which stood inside the sanctuary, was the incense altar. It was made of the same unrotting wood as the other vessels and covered entirely with gold plates. Each side was one cubit wide, and its height was twice that measure. A gold grate rose above the altar, and a gold crown ran around it. Rings and bars were attached so the priests could carry it when they traveled.

In front of the tabernacle stood a bronze altar with a wooden core. Each side measured five cubits, and its height was three cubits. It was covered with bronze plates bright as gold. It also had a bronze grate, with space beneath it for the fire to reach the ground, since the altar had no base to hold it.

Beside this altar were basins, vessels, censers, and caldrons made of gold. The other vessels used for the sacrifices were all made of bronze. Such was the construction of the tabernacle and its vessels.

CHAPTER 7

The Garments of the Priests and the High Priest

Special garments were appointed for the priests and for the high priest. The priests' garments were called Cohanoeoe, meaning priestly garments, while the high priest's garments were called Cahanoeoe Rabbae. The ordinary priests wore the following clothing. Before approaching the sacrifices, a priest first purified himself according to the law. He then put on a garment called Machanase, a name that means something tightly fastened. It was a belt of fine, twisted linen, worn around the private parts. The wearer stepped into it as he would a pair of breeches, but it was cut off above the knees and fastened around the thighs.

Over this he wore a linen garment made from fine flax folded double. It was called Chethone, a word meaning linen, which is also what we call it. The garment reached to the feet and fit closely against the body. Its sleeves were tied around the arms. A belt, four fingers wide, was wound around the body just above the elbows. It was woven so loosely that it looked like the skin of a serpent. Scarlet, purple, and blue flowers were embroidered on it, along with fine twisted linen, though the warp was entirely linen.

The belt began at the breast. After it had been wound around the body many times, it was tied there and allowed to hang loosely down to the ankles. The priest wore it this way whenever he was not engaged in hard work, since it looked most pleasing to those who saw him. But when he took part in the sacrifices and had to perform his appointed duties, he threw the hanging end over his left shoulder so it would not get in his way.

Moses called this belt Albaneth. We learned from the Babylonians to call it Emia, which is their name for it. The garment had no loose or hollow parts, except for a narrow opening at the neck. It was fastened with cords that hung from the edges over the chest and back, and were tied above each shoulder. This garment was called Massabazanes.

On his head, the priest wore a cap that was neither conical nor large enough to cover the whole head. It covered more than half the head and was called Masnaemphthes. Made of thick linen bands, it looked like a crown. The bands were wound around one another many times and sewn together. A piece of fine linen covered the cap from the top down to the forehead, hiding the seams of the bands, which would otherwise have looked untidy. The cap fit tightly against the head and was secured so firmly that it could not fall off during the sacred service at the sacrifices. This was the clothing worn by the priests in general.

The high priest wore all the garments we have described, with none left out. Over them, he wore a blue robe. It was long and reached to his feet. In our language, it was called Meeir. He fastened it around himself with a belt embroidered with the same colors and flowers as the other belt, but with gold woven into it as well.

Fringes shaped and colored like pomegranates hung from the bottom of the robe, along with golden bells, arranged with skill and beauty. A pomegranate hung between every two bells, and a bell between every two pomegranates.

The robe was woven as one piece, not made from two pieces sewn together at the shoulders or sides. It had an opening for the neck, which ran straight down the front and back rather than slanting to one side. A border was sewn around the opening so it would not look improper. The robe was also open at the sides where the hands came through.

Over these garments, the high priest wore a third one, called the Ephod, which resembled the Greek Epomis. It was woven to a depth of one cubit, made in several colors with gold mixed in, and embroidered. It had sleeves and looked much like a short coat, but left the middle of the chest uncovered.

A piece about a span wide was fitted into the open space. It was embroidered in gold and the other colors of the ephod. This piece was called Essen, or the breastplate, a word that means Oracle in Greek. It filled the open space in the ephod exactly. Golden rings at each corner connected the breastplate to matching rings on the ephod. Blue ribbons passed through the rings and tied the two garments together. Blue stitching filled the space between the rings so it would not look empty.

Two sardonyx stones were set on the shoulders of the ephod and fastened like buttons. Their ends were set in gold, allowing them to be secured in place. The names of Jacob's sons were engraved on the stones in our own letters and language, six names on each stone. The names of the older sons were on the right shoulder.

The breastplate held twelve large, beautiful stones, too costly for anyone to buy. They were set in four rows of three stones each, fitted into gold settings attached to the breastplate so they could not fall out. The first row held a sardonyx, a topaz, and an emerald. The second held a carbuncle, a jasper, and a sapphire. The third held a ligure, an amethyst, and an agate, which was the ninth stone. The fourth held a chrysolite, an onyx, and a beryl, the last of the twelve.

The names of Jacob's sons, whom we regard as the founders of our tribes, were engraved on these stones. Each son's name was carved on a stone, in the order of their birth.

The rings alone were too weak to carry the weight of the stones. So two larger rings were fitted along the upper edge of the breastplate, near the neck, and worked into its fabric. They held finely made chains, which connected the breastplate to golden bands at the tops of the shoulders. The ends of the bands turned backward and passed through rings on the raised back of the ephod. This kept the breastplate securely in place.

A belt was also sewn to the breastplate. It was made in the colors described earlier, with gold woven into it. After being wound once around the body, it was tied at the seam and allowed to hang down. Golden loops at both ends of the belt held its fringes and enclosed them completely.

The high priest wore the same mitre we described earlier, made in the same way as the caps worn by the other priests. Over it he wore another covering, wrapped with embroidered blue bands. A polished golden crown, made in three rows, was fitted around it. From this crown rose a golden cup shaped like the plant we call Saccharus. Greeks who know plants call it Hyoscyamus.

For anyone who has seen this plant without learning its name, or who knows the name but would not recognize it, I will describe it. The plant often grows taller than three spans. Its root resembles a turnip, and its leaves resemble mint. A cup grows from its branches and clings to them. A covering grows around the cup, then naturally falls away as the plant changes and produces its fruit.

The cup is about the size of the bone in the little finger, though its opening is as wide around as a small cup. Imagine a sphere divided into two parts, rounded at the bottom, with another section rising from the bottom to form a rim. This section narrows gradually, its hollow becoming smaller, then widens again toward the rim. It resembles the notched center of a pomegranate. The covering that grows over the plant forms a hemisphere, as if it had been turned on a lathe. Its raised notches grow like those of a pomegranate, but they are sharp and end in prickles.

This covering protects the fruit, which resembles the seed of the plant Sideritis. The plant also produces a flower that looks like a poppy. A crown was made in this shape, extending from the back of the head to both temples. This Ephielis, as the cup may be called, did not cover the forehead. A golden plate covered the forehead instead, with the name of God engraved on it in sacred letters. These were the high priest's ornaments.

People claim to hate us because, they say, we show contempt for the God they profess to honor. Yet anyone who examines the design of the tabernacle, the high priest's garments, and the vessels used in our sacred service will see that our lawgiver was divinely inspired and that these accusations against us are unjust. Anyone who looks at these things fairly and carefully will find that each one was made to imitate and represent the universe.

Moses divided the tabernacle into three parts. He gave two of them to the priests as places open to the people, representing the land and the sea, which everyone may enter. The third part he set apart for God, since heaven is beyond human reach.

The twelve loaves placed on the table represented the year and its twelve months. The candlestick had seventy branches, a hidden reference to the Decani, or seventy divisions of the planets. Its seven lamps represented the courses of the planets, which are seven in number.

The veils were made from four materials, representing the four elements. Fine linen represented the earth because flax grows from the earth. Purple represented the sea because its color comes from the blood of a sea creature. Blue represented the air, and scarlet naturally represented fire.

The high priest's linen robe represented the earth. The blue color represented the sky. Its pomegranates resembled lightning, and the sound of its bells resembled thunder. The ephod showed that God made the universe from four elements. The gold woven into it represented the splendor that gives light to all things.

The breastplate was placed in the middle of the ephod to represent the earth, which lies at the center of the world. The belt that went around the high priest represented the ocean, which encircles and contains the universe. The two sardonyxes, fastened like buttons on his shoulders, represented the sun and the moon.

The twelve stones may represent either the twelve months or the twelve signs of the circle the Greeks call the Zodiac. Both interpretations fit their meaning. The blue mitre represented heaven, for how else could the name of God have been written upon it? The golden crown that adorned it represented the splendor that pleases God.

This explanation is enough for now. As my account continues, I will have many opportunities to speak at greater length about the virtues of our lawgiver.

CHAPTER 8

The Priesthood of Aaron

When the work described earlier was complete, and the gifts had not yet been presented, God appeared to Moses and commanded him to appoint his brother Aaron as high priest. Of all the people, Aaron was most worthy of this honor because of his virtue. Moses gathered the people and told them of Aaron's goodness, his goodwill toward them, and the dangers he had faced on their behalf. They testified to his merits in every way and showed that they were ready to accept him.

Moses then said to them, "Israelites, this work has now been completed in a way that pleases God and is within our power. Since you see that the tabernacle has been received, we must first choose someone to serve there, minister at the sacrifices, and offer prayers for us. Had the choice been left to me, I might have considered myself worthy of this honor, both because people naturally think well of themselves and because I know how much I have done to free you. But God himself has judged Aaron worthy and chosen him as your priest, knowing him to be the most righteous among you. He is to wear the garments consecrated to God, care for the altars, and prepare the sacrifices. He will also offer prayers for you to God, who will readily hear them, both because Aaron cares for your people and because God chose him for this office."

The Hebrews welcomed Moses' words and approved the man God had appointed. Aaron deserved this honor above all others because of his family, his gift of prophecy, and his brother's virtue. At that time, Aaron had four sons: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.

Moses ordered the people to use all the utensils left over from the construction of the tabernacle to cover the tabernacle itself, the lampstand, the incense altar, and the other vessels. This would protect them from rain and dust while they traveled.

He then gathered the people again and commanded each man to offer half a shekel to God. Among the Hebrews, a shekel was a coin equal to four Athenian drachmas. The people readily obeyed. The number of those who made the offering was 605,550. The offering was collected from free men who were at least 20 and under 50 years of age, and the money was used for the needs of the tabernacle.

Moses next purified the tabernacle and the priests. The purification was carried out in this way: He ordered them to take 500 shekels of fine myrrh, an equal weight of cassia, and half that amount of cinnamon and calamus, which is a kind of fragrant spice. They were to grind these ingredients, moisten them with a hin of olive oil, and mix them together. A hin is a measure used in our country, equal to two Athenian choas, or congiuses. They then boiled the mixture and prepared it according to the apothecaries' art, making a sweet ointment. They used it to anoint and purify the priests, the tabernacle, and the sacrifices.

The tabernacle also had many kinds of costly spices, which were placed on the golden incense altar. I won't describe their nature here, since that might weary my readers. Incense was offered twice each day, at sunrise and sunset. They also kept purified oil for the lamps. Three lamps were to burn all day on the sacred lampstand before God, and the others were lit in the evening.

When all the work was finished, Besaleel and Aholiab proved to be the most skilled workers. They designed finer work than anyone had made before them, and they had a great ability to understand things that had once been unfamiliar to them. Besaleel was judged the most skilled of the two.

They worked for seven months, and by then the first year since their departure from Egypt had ended. At the beginning of the second year, on the first day of the month called Xanthicus by the Macedonians and Nisan by the Hebrews, they consecrated the tabernacle and all its vessels, which I have already described.

God showed that he was pleased with the Hebrews' work and did not let their efforts go to waste. He accepted what they had made, came to dwell among them, and set his tabernacle in the holy place. He came in this way: The sky was clear, but a mist surrounded the tabernacle alone. It was not as thick as a winter cloud, nor so thin that people could see through it. A sweet dew fell from it, showing God's presence to those who sought him and believed.

Moses gave suitable gifts of honor to the workers who had done such fine work. Then, as God had commanded, he offered sacrifices in the open court of the tabernacle: a bull, a ram, and a young goat as a sin offering. I will discuss our sacred rites in my account of sacrifices, where I will explain when Moses commanded us to offer a whole burnt offering and when the law allows us to eat the sacrifices.

Moses sprinkled Aaron's garments, Aaron himself, and his sons with the blood of the animals that had been killed. He purified them with spring water and ointment, and they became priests of God. For seven days, he consecrated them and their garments in this manner. He treated the tabernacle and its vessels in the same way, first using the oil I described and then the blood of bulls and rams, one of each kind killed every day.

On the eighth day, Moses held a feast for the people and commanded them to offer sacrifices according to their means. They competed with one another, each eager to bring a greater sacrifice, and so they carried out Moses' command. As the sacrifices lay on the altar, a fire suddenly sprang up on its own. It looked like a flash of lightning and consumed everything on the altar.

A great sorrow then came upon Aaron as a man and a father, but he endured it with courage. He had a firm spirit in times of trouble and believed the calamity had come by God's will. As I said, Aaron had four sons. His two eldest, Nadab and Abihu, failed to bring the sacrifices Moses had commanded. Instead, they brought the kind they had offered before, and they were burned to death. When the fire rushed upon them and began to burn them, no one could put it out. That was how they died.

Moses told Aaron and his sons to carry the bodies out of the camp and bury them with honor. The people mourned and were deeply grieved by this sudden death. But Moses urged Aaron and his sons not to give way to grief, and to put God's honor before their sorrow, since Aaron had already put on his sacred garments.

Moses refused all the honors the people were ready to give him and devoted himself to God's service. He no longer went up Mount Sinai. Instead, he entered the tabernacle and returned with God's answers to the questions he had put before him.

Moses dressed like an ordinary man and, in every other way, lived as one of the people. He did not want to set himself apart from them. He wanted them to know that his only concern was their welfare. He also wrote down their form of government and the laws they were to obey, so they could live in a way that pleased God and avoid quarrels among themselves. These laws were those God had given him. I will now speak about this form of government and these laws.

I will now discuss something I left out earlier, the high priest's garments. Moses made no allowance for false prophets to misuse God's authority. He left it to God to be present at the sacrifices when he chose and to be absent when he chose. Moses wanted this to be known not only to the Hebrews, but also to the foreigners who were there.

As I said before, the high priest wore two stones on his shoulders, sardonyxes, whose appearance is familiar to everyone. One of them shone whenever God was present at the sacrifices. The stone on his right shoulder, which was set like a button, sent out bright rays that could be seen even from far away. The stone did not naturally shine in this way. Those who have not given themselves over to philosophy to the point of rejecting divine revelation have regarded this as a wonder.

I will also describe something even more wonderful. The twelve stones on the high priest's breast, set into his breastplate, gave advance notice of victory in battle. Before the army began to march, they shone so brightly that the whole people knew God was there to help them. For this reason, the Greeks who respected our laws called the breastplate the Oracle, since they could not deny what it revealed. The breastplate and the sardonyx stopped shining 200 years before I wrote this book, because God was displeased with the people for breaking his laws. I will speak more about these matters at a better time. For now, I will return to the account I began.

The tabernacle had now been consecrated, and the priests had been given their duties in an orderly way. The people believed that God now lived among them. They offered sacrifices and praise to him, since they had been delivered from the fear of danger and looked forward to better times.

They also brought gifts to God, some on behalf of the whole nation and others for their own tribes. The tribal leaders joined in pairs, each pair bringing a wagon and a yoke of oxen. There were six wagons and six pairs of oxen, which carried the tabernacle when the people traveled.

Each tribal leader also brought a bowl, a dish, and a spoon worth ten darics, filled with incense. The dish and bowl were made of silver and together weighed 200 shekels, while the spoon weighed 70 shekels. They were filled with fine flour mixed with oil, the kind used at the altar with the sacrifices. Each leader also brought a young bull, a ram, and a year-old lamb for a whole burnt offering, as well as a goat for the forgiveness of sins.

Each tribal leader brought further sacrifices, called peace offerings. Every day they offered two bulls, five rams, year-old lambs, and young goats. The twelve leaders made their offerings over twelve days, one leader each day.

Moses no longer went up Mount Sinai. He entered the tabernacle and learned from God what the people should do and what laws should be made. These laws were better than any devised by human understanding, and the Hebrews kept them firmly for all time. They believed the laws were a gift from God, and did not break them either in times of peace, when luxury tempted them, or in times of war, when hardship pressed upon them. I will say no more about them here, since I have decided to write another work about our laws.

CHAPTER 9

The Manner of Offering Sacrifices

Since I have come to speak of sacrifices, I will now describe some of our laws concerning purification and other sacred duties. There are two kinds of sacrifices: those offered by individuals and those offered on behalf of the whole people. They are performed in two different ways. In one, the entire offering is burned, which is why it is called a burnt offering. The other is a thank offering, meant to provide a feast for those who offer it. I will begin with the burnt offering.

When a private person offers a burnt offering, the animal must be a bull, a lamb, or a young goat. The lamb and goat must be in their first year, but a bull may be older. Every burnt offering must be male. After the animal is killed, the priests sprinkle its blood around the altar. They then clean the body, divide it into parts, salt them, and place them on the altar, where wood has been stacked and the fire is burning. They carefully clean the animal's feet and inner parts, then place them with the other pieces to be consumed by the fire. The priests keep the hides. This is how a burnt offering is made.

Those who offer thank offerings sacrifice the same kinds of animals, but they must be without blemish and more than a year old. They may be either male or female. The priests sprinkle the altar with the animal's blood. They place the kidneys, the fat around them, all the other fat, the lobe of the liver, and the lamb's tail on the altar. The offerers give the breast and right shoulder to the priests, then eat the rest of the meat for two days. Anything left after that must be burned.

Sin offerings are made in much the same way as thank offerings. Those who cannot afford a whole animal may offer two pigeons or two turtledoves. One is offered as a burnt offering to God; the other is given to the priests for food. I will describe the offering of these birds more fully when I discuss sacrifices.

If someone sins unknowingly, that person must offer a ewe lamb or a female goat of the same age. The priests sprinkle its blood on the corners of the altar, rather than around it as they do with other offerings. They place the kidneys, the rest of the fat, and the lobe of the liver on the altar. The priests take the hide and meat and eat them in the holy place that same day, for the law does not allow any of it to be kept until morning.

If someone knows that he has sinned, but no one can prove it against him, he must offer a ram, as the law requires. The priests eat its meat in the holy place that same day, as before. When rulers offer sacrifices for their sins, they bring the same offerings as private individuals, except that they must offer either a bull or a male goat.

The law requires both private individuals and the people as a whole to bring fine flour with their sacrifices. For a lamb, they bring one-tenth of a measure; for a ram, two-tenths; and for a bull, three-tenths. They mix the flour with oil and consecrate it on the altar. Those making the offering must also bring oil: half a hin for a bull, one-third of a hin for a ram, and one-quarter of a hin for a lamb. The hin is an ancient Hebrew measure equal to two Athenian choas, or congiuses.

They bring the same quantity of wine as oil and pour the wine around the altar. If someone makes a vow and offers only fine flour instead of an animal, he places a handful on the altar as first fruits. The priests keep the rest for food, boiled or mixed with oil and baked into cakes. Any offering made by a priest himself must be burned in its entirety.

The law forbids sacrificing an animal together with its mother. In other cases, an animal may not be sacrificed until it is eight days old. The law also appoints other sacrifices for recovery from illness and for other occasions. These include grain offerings, which are consumed along with the sacrificed animals. No part may be kept until the next day, though the priests receive their allotted share.

CHAPTER 10

The Festivals and How Each Day Is to Be Observed

The law requires that a one-year-old lamb be offered from the public treasury every day, once in the morning and once in the evening. On the seventh day, which is called the Sabbath, two lambs are offered in the same way. At the new moon, in addition to the daily sacrifices, they offer two bulls, seven one-year-old lambs, and a male goat as a sin offering, for sins committed unknowingly.

In the seventh month, which the Macedonians call Hyperberetaeus, they add to these offerings a bull, a ram, seven lambs, and a male goat as a sin offering.

On the tenth day of that lunar month, they fast until evening. On that day, they offer a bull, two rams, seven lambs, and a male goat as a sin offering. They also bring two male goats. One is sent alive beyond the camp into the wilderness as a scapegoat, to atone for the sins of the whole people. The other is taken to a clean place within the camp and burned there with its skin, without being washed.

A bull is burned with this goat. The people do not provide the bull; the high priest pays for it himself. After the bull is killed, the high priest takes some of its blood, along with the blood of the goat, into the holy place. With his finger, he sprinkles the ceiling seven times, then the floor the same number of times. He repeats this toward the Most Holy Place and around the golden altar. Finally, he carries the blood into the outer court and sprinkles it around the great altar.

They also place the animal's extremities, kidneys, fat, and the lobe of its liver on the altar. The high priest offers a ram to God as a burnt offering.

On the fifteenth day of the same month, when the weather begins to turn toward winter, the law commands us to set up shelters at our homes to protect ourselves from the cold. When we reach our own country and come to the city that will be our capital, because the Temple will be built there, we are to celebrate a festival for eight days. We offer burnt offerings and sacrifices of thanksgiving, and carry in our hands branches of myrtle and willow, a palm branch, and a citron.

On the first day, the burnt offering consists of thirteen bulls, fourteen lambs, fifteen rams, and a male goat as a sin offering. On each of the following days, the number of lambs and rams stays the same, and male goats are also offered, but one bull is subtracted each day until only seven remain. On the eighth day, all work stops. As stated before, they offer a bull, a ram, seven lambs, and a male goat as a sin offering. This is the Hebrews' customary festival of shelters.

In the month of Xanthicus, which we call Nisan and consider the beginning of the year, the sun is in Aries. On the fourteenth day of the lunar month, the law commands us to kill the sacrifice we offered when we left Egypt, where we were freed from slavery. This sacrifice is called the Passover. We celebrate it in groups, and leave none of the sacrifice until the next day.

The Feast of Unleavened Bread begins on the fifteenth day of the month and lasts seven days. During that time, they eat unleavened bread. Each day, they kill two bulls, one ram, and seven lambs. The lambs are burned whole as offerings to God. A male goat is also offered for sins, along with the other sacrifices, and the priests feast on it each day.

On the second day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the sixteenth day of the month, they first eat the produce of the land. Before that day, they do not touch the new harvest. To honor God, who provides this plentiful food, they first offer the barley harvest. They take a handful of barley ears, dry them, and beat them into small pieces. Then they separate the grain from the bran and bring one-tenth of a measure to the altar as an offering to God. They throw a handful of it onto the fire and leave the rest for the priest. After this offering, they may harvest their crops, whether in public or in private. They also offer a lamb as a burnt offering when they present the first fruits of the land.

Seven weeks after this sacrifice have passed, a total of forty-nine days. On the fiftieth day, the festival of Pentecost, which the Hebrews call Asartha, they bring God a loaf made with leavened wheat flour, using two-tenths of a measure. They also bring two lambs as sacrifices. After these lambs have been presented to God, they are prepared as a meal for the priests, and none may be left until the next day.

They also kill three bulls and two rams as burnt offerings, along with fourteen lambs and two male goats as sin offerings. At every festival, they offer burnt offerings and rest from their work. The law sets out the sacrifices required for each festival, commands them to stop working, and directs them to offer sacrifices to eat at the feast.

From the common funds, they also provided unleavened bread for the Table of Showbread, using twenty-four-tenths of a measure of flour. They baked two stacks of loaves the day before the Sabbath. On the Sabbath morning, they brought them into the holy place and set them on the sacred table, six to a stack, with one loaf directly opposite another. They also placed two golden cups filled with frankincense on the loaves.

The bread remained there until the next Sabbath, when fresh loaves replaced it. The priests received the old bread as food, and the frankincense was burned in the sacred fire where the other offerings were burned. Fresh frankincense was then placed on the new bread.

The high priest also paid for a sacrifice himself, offering it twice each day. It was made from flour mixed with oil and lightly baked over a fire. The offering used one-tenth of a measure of flour. He brought half of it to the fire in the morning and the other half at night. I will give a fuller account of these sacrifices later. For now, I think I have said enough about them.

CHAPTER 11

Purifications

Moses separated the tribe of Levi from the rest of the people and set them apart as a holy tribe. He purified them with water from flowing springs and with the sacrifices usually offered to God on such occasions. He also entrusted them with the tabernacle, its sacred vessels, and the curtains made to cover it. They were to serve under the direction of the priests, who had already been consecrated to God.

Moses also made rules about animals, naming those people could eat and those they had to avoid. I will explain these rules in more detail when the subject arises, and I will also give the reasons Moses assigned some animals as food and forbade others. He completely prohibited eating blood, which he believed held the soul and spirit. He also forbade eating the flesh of an animal that had died on its own, as well as the fat around the entrails and the fat of goats, sheep, and bulls.

Moses ordered that people with leprosy or a discharge could not enter the city. Women were also to remain outside during their monthly periods until the seventh day. After that, they were considered clean and could return. The law allowed those who had cared for the dead to return after the same number of days. If anyone remained unclean beyond that period, the law required two lambs as a sacrifice. One was to be burned, and the priests kept the other for themselves. Those who had a discharge offered the same sacrifices. A man who had an emission in his sleep could become clean by bathing in cold water, just as a man could after having relations with his wife. People with leprosy, however, were not allowed to enter the city or live with anyone else, as though they were dead. If someone prayed to God and recovered, regaining a healthy complexion, that person gave thanks to God with several kinds of sacrifices. I will discuss those sacrifices later.

It is hard not to smile at those who claim that Moses himself had leprosy when he fled Egypt, and that he led people with the same condition out of the country and into Canaan. If this were true, Moses would hardly have made laws that brought shame on himself. More likely, he would have opposed such laws if others had tried to introduce them. In many nations, people with leprosy are honored. They face no reproach or exclusion. Some have commanded armies, held high public offices, and entered holy places and temples. So if Moses or the people with him had suffered from a skin condition, nothing would have stopped him from making laws to protect their standing and welfare, rather than placing restrictions on them. These claims about us clearly come from deep prejudice. Moses himself was free of the disease, as were the people among whom he lived. He made these laws for others who had it, out of respect for God. Let each person judge these matters as he sees fit.

Moses also forbade women who had given birth from entering the temple or touching the sacrifices until forty days had passed, if the child was a boy. If the child was a girl, they had to wait twice as long. Once the required time had passed, they offered their sacrifices, and the priests presented them before God.

If a man suspected his wife of adultery, he had to bring a tenth measure of barley flour. The priest offered one handful to God and gave the rest to the priests as food. Then a priest placed the woman at the gates facing the temple, removed the veil from her head, and wrote God's name on parchment. He made her swear that she had not betrayed her husband. She also had to declare that if she had been unfaithful, her right thigh would be crippled, her belly would swell, and she would die from it. But if her husband had suspected her rashly, out of excessive affection and jealousy, she would bear a male child in the tenth month. After she had taken these oaths, the priest washed God's name from the parchment and squeezed the water into a vial. He also took some dust from the temple floor, if any was there, and put a little into the vial. Then he gave it to the woman to drink. If she had been falsely accused, she conceived and carried the child to term. But if she had broken her marriage vows and sworn falsely before God, she died in disgrace. Her thigh fell away, and her belly swelled with dropsy. These are the rules Moses established for sacrifices and the purifications connected with them. He also gave the people the following laws:

CHAPTER 12

Several Laws

Moses forbade adultery, believing it was best for men to honor the marriage bond. He considered it good for cities and families that children should be known to be legitimate. He also condemned a man's lying with his mother as one of the worst crimes. The same was true of lying with his father's wife, his aunts, his sisters, or his sons' wives. He forbade a man to lie with his wife during her menstrual period, to mate with an animal, or to lie with another man in pursuit of unlawful pleasure based on beauty. He ordered that those guilty of such conduct be put to death.

Moses required the priests to observe an even higher degree of purity.He held them to the laws above and also forbade them to marry prostitutes, enslaved women, captives, or women who earned their living through dishonest trades or by keeping inns. They could not marry a woman who had separated from her husband for any reason. The high priest faced stricter rules than the other priests. While the priests could marry a widow, the high priest could not. He could marry only a virgin, and he was to remain with her. The high priest was also forbidden to approach a dead person, though the other priests could approach the bodies of their brothers, parents, and children. All priests had to be without physical blemish. A priest with a blemish could receive his share among the priests, but he could not go up to the altar or enter the holy house.

Moses required them to remain pure not only during their sacred duties but also in their daily conduct, so that their lives would be beyond reproach. Those who wore the priestly garments had to be without stain and known for their purity and self-control. They could not drink wine while wearing those garments. The priests also had to offer sacrifices that were whole and free of any defect.

Moses gave these laws while he was alive, and he also made provision for the time when the people would enter Canaan, though they were still living in the wilderness. He ordered the land to rest from plowing and planting every seventh year, just as the people rested from work every seventh day. Whatever grew on its own during that year belonged to anyone who wished to gather it. No distinction was to be made between their own people and foreigners.

The same practice was to be observed after seven periods of seven years, making a total of fifty years. The fiftieth year was called the Jubilee by the Hebrews. In that year, debtors were freed from their debts and slaves were set at liberty. Some of these slaves were of the same people as their masters. They had become slaves after breaking laws whose penalties were not death, and slavery was the punishment.

The Jubilee also returned land to its former owners in this way. When the year came, the person who had sold the land and the person who had bought it met and compared the value of the crops gathered with the expenses spent on the land. If the crops were worth more than the expenses, the seller took back the land. If the expenses were greater than the value of the crops, the current owner paid the former owner the difference and kept the land. If the crops and expenses were equal, the current owner returned the land to its former owner.

Moses applied the same law to houses sold in villages, but he made a different rule for houses sold in cities. If the seller repaid the buyer within a year, the buyer had to return the house. But if a full year passed, the buyer kept what he had purchased. These were the laws Moses learned from God while the camp was below Mount Sinai, and he gave them to the Hebrews in writing.

Once the laws had been settled, Moses decided to count the people, since he thought it was time to prepare for war. He ordered the leaders of the tribes, except for the tribe of Levi, to count everyone able to serve in the army. The Levites were holy and were exempt from these duties. The count found six hundred thousand men fit for war, between twenty and fifty years of age, besides three thousand six hundred and fifty. In place of Levi, Moses counted Manasseh, Joseph's son, among the tribes' leaders, and he counted Ephraim in place of Joseph. This followed Jacob's own wish, which he had expressed to Joseph: that Joseph's sons should be adopted as Jacob's own, as I have already related.

When the people set up the tabernacle, they placed it in the center of the camp. Three tribes pitched their tents on each side, with roads running through the camp. The camp resembled a well-organized marketplace, where goods were ready for sale and craftsmen worked in their shops. It was like a city that could be moved or remain in one place.

The priests camped nearest the tabernacle, followed by the Levites. The Levite population included all males from thirty days old and numbered twenty-three thousand eight hundred and eighty. While the cloud stayed above the tabernacle, the people remained where they were, believing that God dwelt among them. When the cloud moved, they set out as well.

Moses also devised their silver trumpets. Each was a little less than a cubit long. It was a narrow tube, somewhat thicker than a flute and wide enough for a person to blow into. The end opened into a bell shape, like that of an ordinary trumpet. The Hebrews called its sound Asosra.

They made two trumpets. When one sounded, the people were called together for an assembly. At the first signal, the tribal leaders gathered to discuss the matters under their care. When both trumpets sounded, the whole community was summoned.

They followed a set order whenever they moved the tabernacle. At the first trumpet signal, those camped on the east prepared to leave. At the second, those on the south did the same. Then the tabernacle was taken apart and carried by the Levites, with six tribes traveling ahead and six following. At the third signal, the tribes camped on the west set out; at the fourth, those on the north did likewise.

The people also used the trumpets during sacred services, when they brought sacrifices to the altar on the Sabbath and on other festival days. At that time Moses offered the sacrifice called the Passover in the Wilderness. It was the first sacrifice he had offered since the people left Egypt.

CHAPTER 13

Moses Leaves Mount Sinai and Leads the People to the Borders of Canaan

A little while later, Moses set out from Mount Sinai. After passing through several encampments, he came to a place called Hazeroth. There, the people began to rebel again. They blamed Moses for the hardships they had suffered on the journey. He had persuaded them to leave a good land, they said, and now they had lost it. Instead of living in comfort, they were still wandering in misery, already short of water. If the manna should fail, they would all perish.

As they spoke harshly against Moses, one of the people urged them not to forget all he had done for their safety, and not to lose hope in God's help. But the crowd grew even more unruly and rebellious. Though they treated Moses so shamefully, he encouraged them in their despair and promised to provide them with meat, not just for a few days, but for many.

They refused to believe him. When one of them asked where he could find such a great supply of meat, Moses replied, "Neither God nor I will stop laboring for you, though you speak against us so harshly. You will soon see this for yourselves."

As soon as he had said this, quail filled the camp. The people gathered them in great numbers. But before long, God punished the Hebrews for their insolence and the insults they had spoken against him, and many of them died. To this day, the place remembers their destruction. It is called Kibroth-hattaavah, which means "Graves of Lust."

CHAPTER 14

How Moses Sent Men to Survey the Land of Canaan and the Size of Its Cities; How They Returned After Forty Days and Reported That the Canaanites Were Too Strong for Them; And How the People Lost Hope, Planned to Stone Moses, and Wanted to Return to Egypt and Serve the Egyptians

When Moses led the Hebrews from there to a place called Paran, near the border of Canaan, he gathered them together. The place was difficult to live in. Standing among them, he said, "God promised us two things: freedom and possession of a happy land. By God's gift, you already have the first, and you will soon receive the second. We are now near the borders of Canaan, and nothing can prevent us from taking it. No king, no city, not even all mankind gathered together could stop us. So let us prepare for the task. The Canaanites won't give up their land without a fight; we will have to win it through hard battles. Let us send spies to see how good the land is and how strong its people are. Above all, let us stand together and honor God, who is our greatest helper."

The people showed Moses their respect and chose twelve leading men to serve as spies, one from each tribe. They traveled through the land of Canaan, from the borders of Egypt to the city of Hamath and Mount Lebanon. After surveying the land and its people, they returned, having spent forty days on the journey. They brought back some of the land's fruit and showed how fine it was. They also described the abundance of good things the land produced, which encouraged the people to go to war. But then they frightened them by describing how difficult the land would be to conquer. Its rivers were so wide and deep they could not cross them, its mountains so high they could not travel through them, and its cities were protected by strong walls and fortifications. They also said that they had found the descendants of giants at Hebron. The spies had seen that these obstacles were greater than any they had faced since leaving Egypt. They were frightened themselves, and tried to frighten the people as well.

After hearing this report, the people decided that taking the country was impossible. When the assembly broke up, they continued to mourn with their wives and children, as if God would not help them and had only made them empty promises. They blamed Moses again and shouted against him and his brother Aaron, the high priest. They spent the night cursing them. In the morning, they gathered again, planning to stone Moses and Aaron and return to Egypt.

Among the spies were Joshua, son of Nun, from the tribe of Ephraim, and Caleb, from the tribe of Judah. Fearing what the people might do, they stepped into the crowd and quieted them. They urged the people to be brave and not accuse God of lying. They told them not to listen to those who had frightened them with false reports about the Canaanites, but to trust those who gave them reason to hope for success. The people would take possession of the promised land, they said. Neither high mountains nor deep rivers could stop people with courage, especially when God had already promised to care for them and help them.

"Let us go against our enemies," they said. "We have no reason to expect defeat. Let us trust God to guide us and follow those who will lead us."

The two men spoke this way, trying to calm the people's anger. Moses and Aaron fell to the ground and prayed to God. They did not ask for their own rescue, but begged him to stop the people from acting in their foolishness and to calm their minds, which were stirred up by anger. Then the cloud appeared and stood over the tabernacle, showing the people that God was present there.

CHAPTER 15

How Moses Was Displeased, Foretold God's Anger, and Declared That the People Would Wander in the Wilderness for Forty Years, Neither Returning to Egypt nor Taking Possession of Canaan

Moses came before the people with confidence and told them that God was angered by their offense against him. God would punish them, though not as severely as their sins deserved. He would correct them as a father corrects his children.

Moses said that while he was in the tabernacle, mourning the destruction that threatened them, God reminded him of all he had done for them and of the blessings they had received. Yet they had shown him no gratitude. They had just been persuaded by the spies' fearfulness that the spies' words were more trustworthy than God's promise. For this reason, God would not destroy them all or wipe out a nation he had honored above all others. But he would not let them take possession of Canaan or enjoy its blessings. Instead, they would wander through the wilderness for forty years, without a settled home or a city, as punishment for their wrongdoing. God had promised the land to their children, and those children would receive the good things their parents had lost through their reckless passions.

When Moses spoke to them as God had directed, the people were grieved and distressed. They begged him to make peace between them and God, to end their wandering in the wilderness, and to give them cities. Moses answered that God would not reconsider his decision. God had not reached it through human weakness or anger. He had judged them and assigned their punishment.

We need not doubt that one man, Moses, could calm tens of thousands who were angry and turn them toward a gentler spirit. God was with him and made the people ready to hear his words. They had often disobeyed, and now they understood that their disobedience had brought them harm and led them into one disaster after another.

Moses was a man of remarkable virtue, and he had the power to make people believe what he said. That power did not end with his life. Even now, there is no Hebrew who does not act as though Moses were present and ready to punish him for any shameful deed. Everyone obeys the laws he established, even when they could break them in secret.

Many other things show that Moses' power was more than human. Some people have traveled from beyond the Euphrates, a journey of four months through danger and at great expense, to honor our temple. Yet after bringing their offerings, they could not take part in the sacrifices they had made, because a rule in Moses' law forbade it, or because something had happened to them that our ancient customs did not allow. Some did not sacrifice at all; others left their sacrifices unfinished. Many could not even enter the temple, and went away rather than violate the law of Moses to satisfy their own wishes. They feared no human accuser. They acted this way out of respect for their own conscience.

This law, which appeared to be divine, made Moses esteemed as more than an ordinary man. A little before the beginning of the war, when Claudius was emperor of Rome and Ismael was our high priest, a great famine struck us. A tenth-measure of wheat sold for four drachmae. At the Feast of Unleavened Bread, no less than seventy cori of flour were brought into the temple. These cori equal thirty-one Sicilian medimni, or forty-one Athenian medimni. Even during this great hardship, none of the priests dared eat a single crumb. They feared the law and the anger God holds against wrongdoing, even when no one can accuse those who commit it.

We should not wonder at what happened then. To this day, the writings Moses left behind carry such authority that even those who hate us admit that God established this way of life through Moses and his virtue. Each person may judge these matters as he sees fit.