Antiquities of the Jews Book 15

BOOK XV

The Eighteen-Year Period

From the Death of Antigonus to the Completion of the Temple by Herod

CHAPTER 1

Pollio and Sameas. Herod Executes the Leading Supporters of Antigonus and Strips Jerusalem of Its Wealth. Antony Beheads Antigonus.

In the previous book, we described how Sosius and Herod captured Jerusalem by force and took Antigonus prisoner. We now continue the account. Herod had gained control of all Judea, and he rewarded the citizens who had supported him. At the same time, he kept punishing those who had backed his enemies. Of them all, he honored Pollio the Pharisee and Sameas, Pollio's disciple, most highly. During the siege of Jerusalem, they had urged the citizens to accept Herod, and he repaid them well for their advice.

Once, when Herod stood trial on a charge that could cost him his life, Pollio rebuked Hyrcanus and the other judges. He warned them that Herod, whom they were now allowing to escape punishment, would one day punish them all. In time, God brought Pollio's words to pass.

After Herod took Jerusalem, he seized all the royal treasures and stripped the wealthy men of their possessions. He gathered a great store of silver and gold, then gave it all to Antony and his associates. Herod also killed forty-five leading supporters of Antigonus and placed guards at the city gates to prevent anyone from carrying anything out with the bodies. The guards searched the dead, and they took every piece of silver, gold, or other treasure they found and delivered it to the king. The people had no end of suffering. Their distress came partly from the regent's greed, since he continued to demand more, and partly from the Sabbatical year, when the law forbade them to sow their fields.

Antony took Antigonus prisoner and first planned to keep him for his triumph. But he heard that the people were becoming rebellious and, out of hatred for Herod, still favored Antigonus. So Antony decided to have him beheaded at Antioch, believing that only his death could quiet the Jews.

Strabo of Cappadocia confirms this account. He writes: "Antony ordered Antigonus the Jew to be brought to Antioch and beheaded there. Antony seems to me to have been the first man to behead a king. He believed that no other means could persuade the Jews to accept Herod, whom he had appointed king in Antigonus's place. No amount of torture could make them call Herod their king, so strongly did they favor their former king. Antony therefore thought that this dishonorable death would weaken their respect for Antigonus's memory and lessen their hatred of Herod." This is what Strabo says.

CHAPTER 2

How the Parthians Freed Hyrcanus, Who Returned to Herod, and What Alexandra Did When She Learned That Ananelus Had Been Made High Priest

After Herod took possession of the kingdom, Hyrcanus, the high priest who had been held captive by the Parthians, returned to him as a free man. This was how it happened. Barzapharnes and Pacorus, Parthian generals, captured Hyrcanus, who had first served as high priest and later as king, along with Herod's brother Phasaelus. They carried them off to Parthia. Phasaelus could not endure the shame of captivity. Believing that an honorable death was better than any life in chains, he killed himself, as I have already related.

When Hyrcanus arrived in Parthia, King Phraates treated him kindly. He had learned of Hyrcanus's distinguished family, so he released him from his bonds and gave him a home in Babylon, where many Jews lived. The Jews there honored Hyrcanus as their high priest and king, as did the Jewish people living as far away as the Euphrates. Their respect pleased him greatly.

Later, when Hyrcanus heard that Herod had gained the kingdom, he began to hope for a favorable reception. He had always been kindly disposed toward Herod and expected him to remember the kindness he had once received. When Herod had faced trial and the threat of a death sentence, Hyrcanus had saved him from that danger and from every punishment. Hyrcanus often spoke of this to the Jews who visited him with affection.

They tried to persuade him to remain among them. They reminded him of the kindness and honor they had shown him, which they said were equal to what they could offer a high priest or king. They also argued that he could never hold those offices in Judea because Antigonus had mutilated him. Besides, they said, kings often forget the kindnesses they received before gaining power, since great fortune tends to change a man's character.

Although the Jews offered these arguments for his own good, Hyrcanus still wanted to leave. Herod also wrote to him, urging him to ask Phraates and the Jews in Parthia not to deny him the royal authority, which he would share with Herod. Herod said this was the right time to repay Hyrcanus for his kindness, since Hyrcanus had raised him and saved his life.

Herod sent his ambassador Saramallas to Phraates with many gifts and asked the king, in the most respectful terms, not to prevent him from showing gratitude to his benefactor. Yet Herod's eagerness did not come from gratitude. He had become ruler of Judea without a lawful claim to the kingdom, so he feared that his position might change. For that reason, he hurried to bring Hyrcanus under his control, or even to remove him altogether. In time, he accomplished the latter.

With the Parthian king's permission, and with money supplied by the Jews, Hyrcanus returned full of confidence. Herod welcomed him with every show of respect. He gave him the seat of honor at public gatherings and placed him above everyone else at feasts. In this way, Herod deceived him. He called Hyrcanus his father and did everything he could to keep him from suspecting any treachery.

Herod also took other steps to secure his rule, but these stirred trouble within his own family. Since he feared appointing any prominent man as high priest, he summoned an obscure priest named Ananelus from Babylon and gave him the high priesthood.

Alexandra, Hyrcanus's daughter and the wife of Alexander, son of King Aristobulus, could not bear this insult. She had borne Alexander two children: a son named Aristobulus, who was exceptionally handsome, and a daughter named Mariamne, who was also renowned for her beauty. Mariamne had married Herod.

Alexandra was deeply troubled that someone else had received the high priesthood while her son was still alive. She wrote to Cleopatra, asking her to appeal to Antony on her behalf and secure the office for Aristobulus. A musician helped Alexandra arrange for the letters to be delivered.

Antony was slow to grant her request. Meanwhile, his friend Dellius came to Judea on other business. When he saw Aristobulus, he was struck by the young man's height and good looks. He admired Mariamne as well and openly praised Alexandra for having such beautiful children.

During their conversation, Dellius urged Alexandra to have portraits made of both children and send them to Antony. Once Antony saw them, he said, he would refuse her nothing. Encouraged by these words, Alexandra sent the portraits. Dellius also spoke extravagantly, claiming that the children looked as if they had been born not of human parents but of a god.

Dellius hoped to tempt Antony into an affair with them. Antony was ashamed to summon Mariamne because she was Herod's wife, and he feared Cleopatra's reproaches. He therefore sent for Aristobulus as politely as he could, adding that the young man need not come if he found the request burdensome.

When Herod received Antony's letter, he decided it would be unsafe to send Aristobulus away. The boy was sixteen, strikingly handsome, and descended from a noble family. Herod also feared that Antony, the most powerful Roman, would use his authority to satisfy his desires. Antony openly pursued whatever pleasures his power allowed him.

Herod wrote back that if Aristobulus left Judea, the country would erupt in war and disorder. The Jews hoped for a change in government and wanted another king.

After making this excuse to Antony, Herod decided not to let Aristobulus or Alexandra suffer further dishonor. His wife Mariamne pressed him to restore the high priesthood to her brother. Herod judged that it would serve his interests, since Aristobulus would be unable to leave the country once he held the office.

Herod gathered his friends and told them that Alexandra had secretly plotted against his royal authority. Through Cleopatra, he said, she had tried to persuade Antony to remove him from power and put Aristobulus in charge of public affairs. Herod called her actions unjust, since she meant to strip her daughter of her standing and unsettle the kingdom, which he had worked hard to secure at great risk. Still, he said, he would do what was right despite her wrongdoing. He would now give Aristobulus the high priesthood. He had appointed Ananelus earlier only because Aristobulus was then very young.

Herod spoke this way not by chance but because he thought it was the best means of deceiving Alexandra and the friends he had summoned. Overjoyed by his unexpected promise, yet anxious because she suspected his motives, Alexandra began to weep. She explained that she had acted only because she was distressed by the dishonor done to her son and had tried her best to obtain the high priesthood for him. She had made no attempt to seize the kingdom, she said, and would refuse it if anyone offered it to her son.

Alexandra said she would be content with her son's new office while Herod governed the kingdom. His skill in ruling, she added, would protect the rest of her family. She thanked him for his favor and promised to obey him from then on. She asked him to forgive her if her noble birth and the freedom she believed it gave her had led her to act too hastily and without good judgment. After they had spoken, they reached an agreement, and all outward signs of suspicion disappeared.

CHAPTER 3

How Herod Made Aristobulus High Priest and Soon Had Him Murdered; His Defense Before Antony; and the Affairs of Joseph and Mariamne

Herod at once removed Ananelus from the high priesthood. As we said earlier, Ananelus was not from Judea. He was one of the Jews carried captive beyond the Euphrates, where many tens of thousands of our people lived in the region of Babylonia. Ananelus came from there. He belonged to the line of the high priests and had long been a close friend of Herod. When Herod first became king, he had given Ananelus the high priesthood. Now he removed him to quiet the troubles within his family.

Herod's action was plainly unlawful. In earlier times, no one who had received the high priesthood had ever been removed from it. Antiochus Epiphanes was the first to break this custom: he took the office from Jesus and gave it to Jesus' brother, Onias. Aristobulus was the second to do so, removing the office from his brother Hyrcanus. Herod was the third. He took the high priesthood from Ananelus and gave it to the young Aristobulus.

Herod seemed to have settled the disputes within his family, but he still distrusted Alexandra. People who appear to have made peace often remain suspicious of one another, and Herod feared that Alexandra would continue trying to bring about change if she found the right opportunity. He ordered her to live in the palace and forbade her to take part in public affairs. Her guards watched her so closely that they reported everything she did in private.

These restrictions gradually angered Alexandra, and she began to hate Herod. She was proud and could not bear the constant surveillance. She would rather face any danger than lose her freedom and live in fear under the name of an honored guest. So she wrote to Cleopatra, described her situation at length, and begged her to help. Cleopatra advised her to take her son and escape to Egypt at once.

Alexandra welcomed the plan. She had two coffins made, as though they were meant to carry away two dead bodies. She hid herself in one and her son in the other, then told the servants who knew of the plan to take them out at night. They intended to travel to the coast, where a ship was waiting to carry them to Egypt.

But one of Alexandra's servants, Aesop, happened to meet Sabion, one of her friends, and spoke of the plan, assuming Sabion already knew about it. Sabion had once been Herod's enemy and had been counted among those who plotted against Herod's father, Antipater, and gave him poison. He hoped that exposing Alexandra's plan would win Herod's favor. So he told the king what she intended to do.

Herod let Alexandra carry out the plan until he could catch her in the act. Then he allowed her to go unpunished. He wanted to punish her, but feared Cleopatra would not tolerate an accusation against Alexandra, given her hatred of him. Instead, Herod made a show of forgiving her out of generosity and self-control. Still, he intended to have the young Aristobulus killed. He thought he could hide his responsibility more easily if he waited rather than acting at once, so soon after Alexandra's attempted escape.

The Feast of Tabernacles was approaching, a festival that our people observe with great care. Herod let the celebration pass, and he and the people enjoyed the feast. But envy drove him to act quickly against the young man.

Aristobulus was now seventeen. When he went to the altar, as the law required, to offer the sacrifices in his high priestly garments, he performed the sacred rites with great beauty and dignity. He was taller than most boys his age, and his face showed the noble line from which he came. The people felt great affection for him. They remembered the deeds of his grandfather, Aristobulus, and their feelings overcame their caution. They showed their support openly, greeting him with joyful cries and good wishes. They were glad to see him, yet also uneasy, and their praise of his family went further than was safe under a monarchy.

Herod then resolved to carry out his plan. When the festival ended, he went to Jericho, where Alexandra was hosting a banquet. He treated Aristobulus warmly and drew him aside to a secluded place, where they played together like boys.

The weather was unusually hot, so the group went outside to the pools near the house to cool off. At first, they watched Herod's servants and companions swim. Then, at Herod's urging, Aristobulus joined them in the water. Some of Herod's companions, whom he had chosen for the task, repeatedly pushed the young man under, pretending it was a game. They continued until he drowned in the fading light.

So Aristobulus was murdered. He was eighteen years old, and he had held the high priesthood for only one year. Ananelus now took the office back.

When the women heard the news, their joy turned to grief at the sight of Aristobulus' body, and they mourned without restraint. The news soon reached Jerusalem, where the whole city grieved. Each household felt the tragedy as though one of its own family had been killed.

Alexandra suffered more than anyone else because she knew her son had been murdered on purpose. Her grief was made worse by knowing how he had died. Yet she had to control herself, fearing that open suspicion might bring still greater harm. More than once, she considered taking her own life, but she held back in the hope that she might live long enough to avenge the secret murder. She decided to stay alive and give no sign that she suspected her son had been killed deliberately. By hiding her suspicions, she hoped to remain free to seek revenge when the right chance came.

Herod, meanwhile, tried to convince everyone that the boy's death had been accidental. He showed the usual signs of mourning and even wept, appearing truly overcome with grief. Perhaps the sight of the young man's beauty and gentle face affected him, although Aristobulus' death had seemed necessary to Herod's own safety. At any rate, his grief helped excuse him in the eyes of some.

Herod arranged an elaborate funeral. He prepared a grand tomb, provided a large quantity of spices, and buried many ornaments with the boy. The women, who had been overcome with sorrow, were astonished by the funeral's splendor and found some comfort in it.

Nothing could ease Alexandra's grief. Her memory of the murder kept her sorrow alive. She sent Cleopatra an account of the treacherous killing. Cleopatra had already wanted to help Alexandra, and she sympathized with her misfortune. She took the matter personally and would not let Antony rest until he agreed to punish Aristobulus' killer. It was shameful, she argued, for Herod, whom Antony had made king of a country that did not belong to him, to commit such a terrible crime against members of the true royal family.

Antony accepted her argument. When he reached Laodicea, he sent for Herod and ordered him to answer for Aristobulus' death. He said that such a treacherous act could not be accepted if Herod had played any part in it.

Herod feared both the charge against him and Cleopatra's hostility. She was always trying to turn Antony against him. Since he had no way to avoid the summons, he decided to obey. He left his uncle Joseph in charge of the government and public affairs. He also gave Joseph a secret order: if Antony killed Herod, Joseph was to kill Mariamne at once.

Herod loved his wife and feared that after his death another man might take her because of her beauty. But his order came from another concern as well. He had heard that Antony had once been captivated by Mariamne's beauty. After giving Joseph these instructions, Herod left for Antony, with little hope that he would return alive.

As Joseph managed the kingdom's public affairs, he often met with Mariamne, both because his duties required it and because he owed the queen proper respect. He spoke often of Herod's love for her. When the women, especially Alexandra, teased him about his remarks, Joseph was so eager to prove the king's devotion that he revealed the order Herod had given him.

Joseph argued that Herod could not live without Mariamne. Even if he came to a violent end, Joseph said, Herod could not bear to be separated from her, even in death.

The women did not take this as proof of Herod's love. Instead, they saw it as proof of his cruelty: even after his death, they would not be free from the threat of being killed. Joseph's words later gave the women stronger reasons to distrust Herod.

At this time, Herod's enemies spread a rumor through Jerusalem that Antony had tortured and killed him. The report alarmed everyone at the palace, especially the women.

Alexandra urged Joseph to leave the palace and flee with them to the Roman legion's standards. The legion, commanded by Julius, was camped near the city to guard the kingdom. If trouble broke out at the palace, she argued, they would be safer under Roman protection. Besides, they hoped to gain supreme power if Antony saw Mariamne. Through her, they might regain the kingdom and secure all that their royal birth entitled them to expect.

While they were considering this plan, letters arrived from Herod. They contradicted the rumor and their expectations. When Herod met Antony, he quickly regained his favor with the gifts he had brought from Jerusalem. He also persuaded Antony, through their discussions, to put aside his anger.

Cleopatra's arguments had less effect than Herod's reasoning and gifts. Antony said it was wrong to demand an account from a king about how he governed. If a king had to answer to others for every decision, he would no longer truly be a king. Those who had given him authority, Antony said, should allow him to exercise it. He told Cleopatra the same thing and advised her not to interfere in the king's government.

Herod wrote about these events and described the other honors Antony had shown him. He sat beside Antony while he heard cases and shared meals with him every day. Herod received these favors despite Cleopatra's fierce accusations. She wanted his country and had pressed Antony to give the kingdom to her, doing everything she could to remove Herod. Yet Antony remained loyal to Herod, who said he no longer feared harsh treatment.

Herod was preparing to return with even firmer assurances that Antony would support him as king and let him manage public affairs. Cleopatra's hopes of taking Judea had ended. Antony had given her Coele-Syria instead, which satisfied her and ended her requests for Judea.

When Herod's letters arrived, the women abandoned their plan to flee to the Romans, which they had considered while they believed he was dead. Their intentions, however, had not remained secret. After Herod escorted Antony on his campaign against the Parthians and returned to Judea, his sister Salome and his mother told him about Alexandra's plans.

Salome also made another accusation against Joseph. She claimed, falsely, that he had often slept with Mariamne. She had long disliked Mariamne, who spoke boldly during their quarrels and scorned the others for their humble birth.

Herod loved Mariamne deeply, but Salome's accusation stirred his jealousy. He could hardly bear the pain of suspicion, though his love kept him from acting rashly. Still, his passion and jealousy drove him to question Mariamne privately about Joseph. She denied the charge under oath and defended herself as an innocent woman would. Gradually, Herod gave up his suspicion and let go of his anger. Overcome by love for his wife, he apologized for seeming to believe the accusation. He praised her modest conduct and declared how deeply he loved her.

At last, as often happens between lovers, they both began to weep and embraced tenderly. But when Herod offered further assurances that he trusted her and tried to win her trust in return, Mariamne asked, "Was it a sign of your love that you ordered me to die with you if Antony harmed you, even though I had done nothing to bring it about?"

Her words shocked Herod. He released her from his embrace, cried out, and tore at his hair. He said her words proved that Joseph had slept with his wife. Joseph could not have repeated what Herod had told him in private, he argued, unless the two had shared a close and trusting relationship.

In his rage, Herod nearly killed Mariamne. Yet his love restrained him, though anguish and unrest remained with him. He ordered Joseph killed without allowing him to appear before the king. As for Alexandra, he had her bound and kept under guard, blaming her for the whole affair.

CHAPTER 4

How Cleopatra Received Parts of Judea and Arabia from Antony, Entered Judea, and Was Given Gifts by Herod Before He Escorted Her on Her Return to Egypt

At this time, affairs in Syria were unsettled because Cleopatra kept urging Antony to seize the lands of other rulers and give them to her. She had great influence over him because he was devoted to her. She was also greedy by nature and stopped at nothing to get what she wanted. She had already poisoned her brother, who was only fifteen and was due to become king of Egypt. Through Antony, she also arranged for her sister Arsinoe to be killed while she was a suppliant at the temple of Diana in Ephesus. If she hoped to gain money, she would violate temples and tombs. No sanctuary was too holy to protect its treasures from her, and no place was too profane to escape her abuses if it could satisfy her greed.

Yet this woman, ruled by her desires, never thought she had enough. She constantly pressed Antony to take lands from other rulers and hand them over to her. As they traveled through Syria, she arranged to bring the region under her control. Antony killed Lysanias, son of Ptolemy, accusing him of bringing the Parthians into those lands. Cleopatra also asked Antony to give her Judea and Arabia, and urged him to remove their current rulers.

Antony was so completely under her influence that it seemed more than her company alone could account for his willingness to do as she wished. Still, the worst of her demands embarrassed him, and he did not always agree to the most outrageous acts she urged him to commit. To avoid refusing her outright, while also avoiding the appearance of approving every wicked deed she proposed, he took some territory from its former rulers and gave it to her. He granted her the cities along the river Eleutherus, as far as Egypt, but he excluded Tyre and Sidon. He knew those cities had been free since ancient times, although Cleopatra repeatedly asked him to give them to her as well.

After gaining these territories, Cleopatra accompanied Antony on his campaign in Armenia as far as the Euphrates. She then turned back, traveling through Apamia and Damascus before entering Judea. Herod met her there and leased from her parts of Arabia, along with the revenues she received from the region around Jericho. That land produced balsam, the most valuable drug found there, which grew nowhere else. The region also had many palm trees of excellent quality.

During her stay, Cleopatra often met with Herod and tried to begin a sexual relationship with him. She made no effort to keep her advances secret. Perhaps she felt some passion for him, but it is more likely that she was setting a treacherous trap. Whatever her purpose, she appeared to be in love with him.

Herod had long disliked Cleopatra, knowing that she was a burden to everyone around her. He hated her all the more if her advances came from lust, and he even considered killing her to prevent her schemes. Instead, he summoned his friends and asked whether he should put her to death while she was in his power. He argued that her death would free many people from the troubles she had already caused and was likely to cause in the future. It might also benefit Antony, since Cleopatra could not be trusted if Antony ever needed her loyalty.

Herod was ready to follow this advice, but his friends stopped him. They warned that such an act would be wrong and would expose him to extreme danger. Antony, they said, would never tolerate it, even if someone clearly showed him that the killing had served his own interests. A violent and treacherous attempt to deprive Antony of Cleopatra's company might only inflame his passion for her further.

Herod could not offer a convincing defense for such an act against a woman who held the highest rank of any woman in the world at that time. Even if he expected some advantage from killing her, his conduct would be condemned as insolent. His kingdom would suffer great and lasting harm, both for himself and for his descendants. He could still refuse the wicked deeds Cleopatra urged upon him and preserve his honor. These warnings persuaded Herod that the danger was too great, so he gave up the plan. Instead, he treated Cleopatra kindly, gave her gifts, and escorted her on her way to Egypt.

Antony, meanwhile, conquered Armenia. He sent Artabazes, son of Tigranes, to Egypt in chains, along with Artabazes' children and officials. Antony gave them to Cleopatra, together with all the royal treasures he had taken from Armenia.

Artaxias, Artabazes' eldest son, escaped and took control of the kingdom. Much later, Archelaus and Nero Caesar drove him out and restored the kingdom to Tigranes, his younger brother.

Herod paid Cleopatra the tribute owed for the territory Antony had given her, since he judged it unsafe to give her any reason to hate him. Herod had also agreed to pay her the tribute due from the king of Arabia. For a time, he paid her the full amount of two hundred talents. Later, however, he became slow and reluctant to pay. He could scarcely be persuaded to pay even part of the sum, and he insisted on deductions.

CHAPTER 5

How Herod Went to War Against the King of Arabia, Fought Many Battles, Defeated Him, and Was Chosen by the Arabs as Their Ruler; Also, an Account of a Great Earthquake

Herod prepared to make war on the king of Arabia because the king had repaid his kindness with ingratitude and refused to do what was just, even though Herod had delayed his own plans because of the war between the Romans. The battle of Actium was near. It took place in the 187th Olympiad, when Caesar and Antony fought for supreme power over the world.

Herod had enjoyed the benefits of a very fertile country for a long time. He had collected large sums in taxes and used them to raise a powerful army. He gathered his troops, equipped them with everything they needed, and planned to send them as auxiliaries to Antony. Antony told him that his help was not needed. Instead, he ordered Herod to punish the king of Arabia. Antony had heard from both Herod and Cleopatra how treacherous the Arab king was. Cleopatra wanted this, since she believed it would benefit her if the two kings harmed each other as much as possible.

After receiving Antony's order, Herod turned back with his army and prepared to invade Arabia at once. When his cavalry and infantry were ready, he marched to Diospolis. The Arabians came there to meet him, since they knew war was coming. A great battle followed, and the Jews won.

Soon afterward, a large Arabian army gathered at Cana, in Coele-Syria. Herod learned of it in advance and marched against them with most of his forces. When he came near Cana, he planned to make camp and raise a rampart, so that he could choose the right moment to attack. But as he gave these orders, the Jewish soldiers cried out that he should not delay and should lead them against the Arabians.

They were eager to fight, confident that they were well prepared. Those who had fought in the earlier battle were especially eager. They had won and had not even allowed the enemy to come close enough for hand-to-hand combat. Seeing their excitement, Herod decided to use their zeal. He assured them that he would be no less brave than they were, then led them forward in full armor, with each regiment following in its proper formation.

The Arabians were seized with fear. When they saw that the Jews were spirited and hard to defeat, most of them fled and avoided the fight. They might have been completely destroyed if Athenion had not attacked the Jews and put them in danger. Athenion commanded Cleopatra's troops in that region and was Herod's enemy. He watched the battle closely. He had decided to stay out of it if the Arabians fought bravely and won. But if they were defeated, as they were, he would attack the Jews with his own troops and the forces gathered in the country for him.

Athenion struck the Jews by surprise while they were tired and believed they had already defeated the enemy. He killed many of them. The Jews had spent their strength fighting their familiar foes and were preparing to rest after their victory. They were therefore easily overcome by the fresh attack, especially in rocky places where their horses were of little use and the enemy knew the ground better.

After the Jews suffered this defeat, the Arabians recovered their courage, turned back, and killed those who were already fleeing. There was slaughter everywhere, and only a few survivors returned to the camp. When Herod realized the battle was lost, he rode to help them. He tried hard, but arrived too late to make a difference. The Jewish camp fell, and the Arabians gained a stunning victory, one they could hardly have won by their own strength. They killed a large part of the enemy army.

Afterward, Herod could do little more than harass Arabia with raids. He made sudden attacks in several places, camped among the mountains, and avoided a pitched battle. Still, through constant effort and hard campaigning, he wore down the enemy. He also took great care of his own forces and did everything he could to restore his fortunes.

The battle of Actium between Octavius Caesar and Antony took place at this time, in the seventh year of Herod's reign. Judea also suffered an earthquake unlike any that had occurred there before. It killed many of the country's animals, and about ten thousand people died when their houses collapsed. The army, which was camped in the open, escaped unharmed.

When the Arabians heard about the earthquake, those who hated the Jews exaggerated the news. They told the Arabians that their enemy's country had been ruined and its people destroyed. The Arabians grew confident, believing that nothing remained to resist them. They seized the Jewish ambassadors who came to negotiate peace after the disaster and put them to death. Then they marched eagerly against the Jewish army.

The Jews did not dare to face them. Their troubles had left them so discouraged that they neglected their affairs and gave themselves over to despair. They saw no hope of matching the Arabians in battle or receiving help elsewhere, especially while their own country was in such distress.

In these circumstances, Herod tried to restore the commanders' courage with his words. First, he spoke privately to some of the leading men to strengthen their confidence. Then he decided to address the whole army, although he had avoided doing so earlier, fearing they would resent it after their misfortunes. He gave them a speech of comfort:

"Fellow soldiers, you know that many troubles have recently hindered our plans. Even men known for their courage may find it hard to keep their spirits up under such conditions. Yet we cannot avoid this battle, and nothing that has happened cannot be put right again through one brave and well-executed action. I have decided to encourage you and explain the matter to you, since both will help you hold fast to your courage.

"First, I will show you that our cause is just, that we must fight, and that our enemies' injustice has brought this war upon us. Once you understand this, you will have good reason to fight with greater spirit. Then I will show you that our misfortunes are not as serious as they seem and that we have strong reason to expect victory.

"I will begin with the justice of our cause, and I call you yourselves to witness what I say. You know the wickedness of the Arabians. It is so extreme that other people find it hard to believe, and it shows a complete lack of both humanity and reverence for God. Their main offenses against us have come from greed and envy. They have attacked us by treachery and surprise.

"Why should I list many examples of their conduct? When they were in danger of losing their freedom and becoming Cleopatra's slaves, who saved them from that fate? My friendship with Antony, and his goodwill toward us, kept the Arabians from being ruined. Antony was unwilling to take any action that we might see as an insult.

"When he planned to give Cleopatra parts of both our kingdoms, I managed matters so that gifts from me could protect both nations. I agreed to pay the money myself. I gave Antony two hundred talents and guaranteed another two hundred, which had been charged as tribute to the land under this payment. Yet the Arabians have cheated us of that money.

"It was wrong for the Jews to pay tribute to anyone or to allow their land to be taxed. But even if such a payment had to be made, we should not have had to pay it on behalf of the Arabians, whom we ourselves saved. They have openly admitted, with gratitude, that they owe their rule to us. It is unjust for them to injure us and deny us what is rightfully ours, when we have been their friends, not their enemies.

"Agreements matter even among bitter enemies, and friends have an even greater duty to keep them. Yet these men ignore their promises. They regard profit as the greatest good, no matter how they obtain it, and think injustice harmless if it brings them money.

"Do you really doubt whether the unjust should be punished? God has declared that they must be. He commands us to hate injury and injustice. This is right in itself, and it is also necessary in war between nations. The Arabians have committed an act that both Greeks and foreigners call an extreme offense: they beheaded our ambassadors. The Greeks hold that ambassadors are sacred and must not be harmed.

"We learned our finest teachings and the holiest parts of our law from God through angels, or messengers. The word 'messenger' brings the knowledge of God to humankind, and a messenger can reconcile enemies. What could be more wicked than killing ambassadors who come to discuss a just settlement?

"After acting this way, how can the Arabians live safely among other nations or expect to succeed in war? I believe they can do neither. Some may say that our cause is just, but the Arabians are braver or more numerous than we are. First, we should not speak that way. God is with those who act justly, and where God is, there is strength and a great multitude.

"Look at what has happened so far. We won the first battle. When we fought again, the Arabians could not stand against us. They fled and could not endure our attack or our courage. Then, after we had defeated them, Athenion made war on us without warning. Does that show Arab bravery, or does it prove their treachery once again?

"Why should this make us less courageous, when it ought to give us greater hope? When the Arabians fight us on open ground, they are beaten. When they seem to win, they do so through treachery. And if anyone thinks they are truly brave, that should only inspire us to do our utmost against them. True courage does not appear in a fight against the weak. It appears when men overcome the strongest opponents.

"If anyone has lost heart because of our hardships and the earthquake, let him first consider that the Arabians have been misled. They believe that what happened to us was worse than it really was. And the same event that gives them confidence should not make us afraid. Their courage does not come from any real advantage they possess. It comes from their belief that our troubles have crushed us. If we march against them boldly, we will soon bring their pride down. Our attack will also make them less confident when the battle begins.

"Our sufferings are not as great as they imagine, and the earthquake does not prove, as some claim, that God is angry with us. Such disasters happen by chance, as part of the ordinary course of events. Even if we say that God sent this disaster, we must also say that he has ended it, since it is now over. If he had meant to afflict us further, he would not have stopped so soon.

"God has also shown that he allows this war to continue and knows that our cause is just. Some people in the country died, but none of you who were armed suffered harm. You have all survived. This shows that if you had all been with the army, along with your wives and children, you would not have suffered anything that could seriously harm you.

"Think on these things, and above all remember that God is always your protector. Fight these men with the courage that justice gives you. They are unjust in friendship, treacherous in battle, wicked toward ambassadors, and always inferior to you in courage."

The Jews were greatly encouraged by this speech and became more eager to fight. Herod offered the sacrifices required by the law, then gathered his men and led them against the Arabians. He crossed the Jordan and set up camp near the enemy.

Herod also decided to seize a certain fortress that stood between the two armies. He thought this would help bring on a battle sooner. If the fighting had to be delayed, the fortress would give him a strong camp. The Arabians wanted the same position, and a struggle began over it. At first, the fighting consisted of skirmishes. More soldiers joined in, and soon it became a battle. Several men fell on both sides, but the Arabians were beaten back.

This victory greatly encouraged the Jews. Herod saw that the enemy was doing everything possible to avoid a full battle, so he boldly ordered his men to tear down the rampart and move closer to the Arabian camp. Once driven from their defenses, the Arabians came out in disorder, with little courage or hope of victory. Still, they fought hand to hand. They outnumbered the Jews and felt they had no choice but to attack boldly.

A terrible battle followed, and many men fell on both sides. At last the Arabians fled. The slaughter after their defeat was so great that they died not only at the hands of their enemies, but also because of their own panic. The crowd trampled them, and many were crushed by their own armor. Five thousand lay dead on the field. The rest hurried behind the rampart for safety, though they had little hope of surviving there because they lacked basic supplies, especially water.

The Jews pursued them but could not enter the fortress. Instead, they surrounded it and watched for anyone who might bring help. They also stopped anyone inside who tried to escape.

In this desperate situation, the Arabians first sent ambassadors to Herod to ask for terms. Then, driven by thirst, they offered to submit to anything he demanded if he would end their misery. Herod refused to receive their ambassadors. He would accept neither a ransom nor any other reasonable terms, since he wanted to avenge the wrongs they had done to his people.

The Arabians were finally forced by their circumstances, especially their thirst, to come out and surrender as prisoners. In five days, the Jews captured four thousand of them. The rest decided to attack the enemy and fight to the end. If they had to die, they preferred to die in battle rather than perish slowly and without honor.

They came out from behind their defenses, but they were too weakened in body and spirit to withstand the fight. They had too little room to use their strength, and they saw death as better than survival. About seven thousand fell in the first attack. After that blow, they lost the courage they had gathered and stood amazed at Herod's fighting spirit, even in the midst of his own troubles.

At last they surrendered and made Herod ruler of their nation. His victory came at a fitting moment and filled him with pride. He returned home with great authority, earned by the bold and successful campaign he had led.

CHAPTER 6

How Herod Put Hyrcanus to Death, Then Went to Caesar and Received the Kingdom from Him; and How, Soon Afterward, He Honored Caesar as a Guest

Herod's other affairs had prospered, and no one seemed able to challenge him. Yet a danger arose that threatened his entire kingdom after Caesar (Octavian) defeated Antony at the battle of Actium. At that time, both Herod's friends and his enemies feared for his future. They thought he could hardly escape punishment after showing such strong loyalty to Antony. His friends saw little hope for him, while his enemies pretended to share their concern but secretly rejoiced, expecting a change that would benefit them.

Herod, for his part, knew that Hyrcanus was the only other man of royal standing. He therefore decided it would be safer to remove him as an obstacle. If Herod survived the danger, he did not want Hyrcanus, who had a stronger claim to the kingdom, to take advantage of the crisis. And if Caesar killed Herod, envy drove him to make sure Hyrcanus would not become king in his place.

While Herod considered these matters, an opportunity arose. Hyrcanus was mild by nature, then as always. He had no wish to involve himself in public affairs or disturb the existing order. Instead, he left events to chance and accepted whatever fortune brought him.

His daughter Alexandra, however, was quarrelsome and eager for a change in government. She urged her father not to endure Herod's mistreatment of their family any longer. He should act while he still could, she said, and write to Malchus, the governor of Arabia, asking him to receive and protect them. If they escaped and Herod's fortunes fell, as seemed likely because Caesar was hostile to him, they would be in a position to claim the kingdom. Their royal birth and the people's goodwill toward them would support their claim.

Hyrcanus resisted her request at first. But Alexandra was persistent. She argued day and night, warning him about Herod's unjust treatment and treacherous plans, until she finally persuaded him. He entrusted a letter to Dositheus, one of his friends, and asked Malchus to send horsemen to meet him and escort him to Lake Asphaltites, about three hundred furlongs from the border of Jerusalem.

Hyrcanus trusted Dositheus because he had served both him and Alexandra faithfully. Dositheus also had reason to hate Herod: he was related to Joseph, whom Herod had killed, and was the brother of men Antony had executed at Tyre. Yet those grievances did not lead him to help Hyrcanus. He chose the prospects offered by the reigning king over those offered by Hyrcanus and gave Herod the letter.

Herod accepted Dositheus's service and asked him to do one more thing. He was to roll up the letter, seal it again, deliver it to Malchus, and bring back the governor's reply. Herod wanted to learn Malchus's intentions as well. Dositheus readily agreed. Malchus replied that he would receive Hyrcanus and all who came with him, including any Jews who supported him. He would also send enough troops to protect them on the journey and provide anything else they needed.

As soon as Herod received the reply, he summoned Hyrcanus and questioned him about his agreement with Malchus. Hyrcanus denied making one, so Herod showed the letter to the Sanhedrin and had him put to death at once.

This is the account found in King Herod's memoirs. Other historians tell a different story. They claim that Herod did not discover a plot but invented one as an excuse to kill Hyrcanus. Their account says that Herod and Hyrcanus once dined together. Herod gave no sign that he suspected him, but asked whether he had received any letters from Malchus. Hyrcanus admitted that he had received letters, but said they contained only greetings. Herod then asked whether Malchus had sent him any gifts. Hyrcanus replied that he had received nothing beyond four riding horses.

According to these writers, Herod treated the letters and horses as proof of bribery and treason, then ordered Hyrcanus to be taken away and killed. They argued that Hyrcanus had committed no crime. He had always been mild in character and had shown no boldness or rashness, even when he was young. When he became king, he still left much of the government in Antipater's hands. By then, he was more than eighty years old and knew that Herod's rule was secure.

Hyrcanus had also crossed the Euphrates and left behind people who honored him greatly, even though he would be returning to live under Herod's authority. These historians considered it hard to believe that he would risk a revolt. Such a plan, they said, did not suit his character and was instead a scheme devised by Herod.

This was Hyrcanus's fate, and so his life ended after many changes of fortune. At the start of his mother Alexandra's nine-year reign, he became high priest of the Jewish people. After her death, he took the kingdom and held it for three months before his brother Aristobulus took it from him.

Pompey later restored him to power and treated him with great honor. Hyrcanus enjoyed that position for forty years. Then Antigonus deposed him, mutilated him, and handed him over to the Parthians as a prisoner. After some time, he returned home because Herod had raised his hopes. Yet nothing turned out as he had expected, and he faced hardship throughout his life. Worst of all, as we have already related, he met an undeserved end.

Hyrcanus was mild and moderate. He usually allowed others to manage public affairs, since he disliked taking an active role and lacked the skill needed to govern a kingdom. Antipater and Herod both rose to power because of his gentleness. In the end, however, they brought him to a death that violated both justice and piety.

After killing Hyrcanus, Herod hurried to meet Caesar. Since he could not expect Caesar's goodwill after supporting Antony, he feared that Alexandra might use the opportunity to stir up the people and cause a revolt. He therefore placed his brother Pheroras in charge of the kingdom. Herod sent his mother Cypros, his sister Salome, and the rest of his family to Masada, ordering Pheroras to protect the government if he received bad news about Herod.

Herod's wife Mariamne could not live with his sister and his sister's mother because of the hostility between them. He therefore sent Mariamne and her mother Alexandra to Alexandrium, leaving his treasurer Joseph and Sohemus of Iturea in charge of the fortress. Both men had served him faithfully from the beginning, and he assigned them to guard the women. He also ordered them to kill both women if they heard that he had died, then do whatever they could to preserve the kingdom for his sons and his brother Pheroras.

After giving these orders, Herod hurried to Rhodes to meet Caesar. When he reached the city, he removed his diadem but kept the rest of his royal bearing. At their meeting, he asked Caesar to hear him. He made a striking display of courage: rather than beg for mercy or plead as though he were a criminal, he spoke frankly about his actions.

Herod said that he had been Antony's close friend and had done all he could to help him win the kingdom. He had not joined Antony's army because the Arabians had kept him away, but he had sent money and grain. Even that, he admitted, was too little compared with what he owed Antony. A man who calls another his friend and recognizes him as a benefactor, Herod said, must risk everything for him and devote his strength, body, and wealth to his service. He confessed that he had fallen short.

Still, he said, he had done one thing right: he had not abandoned Antony after his defeat at Actium or transferred his hopes to someone else when Antony's fortunes changed. Though he had not been a worthy soldier, he had remained a faithful adviser. He had urged Antony to kill Cleopatra, saying that her death would leave Antony a chance to keep his power and reach an agreement with Caesar rather than remain at war. Antony ignored that advice and followed his own reckless course, which proved disastrous for him and beneficial to Caesar.

Herod then told Caesar that he could judge him according to his anger at Antony, and Herod would not deny or hide his loyalty to him. But if Caesar set Antony aside and judged Herod by the way he treated his benefactors, he would find that Herod would serve him with the same steadfast friendship. Only the names would change; the loyalty would remain.

Herod's words and conduct convinced Caesar of his sincerity. Caesar himself was generous and noble in character, and the very deeds that had led to accusations against Herod won him Caesar's favor. Caesar returned Herod's diadem and urged him to show the same devotion to Caesar that he had shown to Antony. He also came to respect him greatly.

Caesar added that Quintus Didius had written to him about Herod's willing help in dealing with the gladiators. After receiving such a warm welcome, Herod gained more than he had hoped for. Caesar confirmed his crown, and he also secured a decree from the Romans to make Herod's rule safer than before.

Herod accompanied Caesar on his way to Egypt and gave lavish gifts to him and his friends, spending more than he could afford. He also asked Caesar to spare Alexander, a companion of Antony. Caesar had sworn to put Alexander to death, however, and could not grant Herod's request.

Herod then returned to Judea with greater honor and confidence than ever. Those who had expected his downfall were dismayed to see him gain still greater standing through the dangers he had faced, by God's favor. As Caesar prepared to leave Syria and invade Egypt, Herod arranged a royal reception for him at Ptolemais. He gave gifts to the army and supplied it with abundant provisions.

Herod became one of Caesar's most trusted friends. He arranged the troops, rode alongside Caesar, and assigned a well-equipped party of 150 men to escort him and his companions. He also supplied everything they needed as they crossed the dry desert. They lacked neither wine nor water, the latter of which the soldiers needed most. In addition, Herod gave Caesar 800 talents.

Herod won the goodwill of the whole company because he helped them more generously than his new kingdom could afford. His actions showed Caesar how steadfastly he would serve him, and the timing of his generosity made it all the more welcome. When Caesar and his men returned from Egypt, Herod gave them assistance equal to what he had provided before.

CHAPTER 7

How Herod Killed Sohemus and Mariamne, Then Alexandra and Costobarus, His Closest Friends, and Finally the Sons of Babas

When Herod returned to his kingdom, he found his household in turmoil. His wife, Mariamne, and her mother, Alexandra, were deeply troubled. They believed, with good reason, that he had placed them in the fortress of Alexandrium not to protect them but to keep them under guard. They had no control over anyone else or even over their own affairs.

Mariamne suspected that Herod's love for her was false, a show he maintained because it served his interests. She was also distressed that he had left her no hope of surviving him if he came to harm. Remembering the orders he had once given to Joseph, she tried to win over her keepers, especially Sohemus, knowing that he held their fate in his hands.

At first, Sohemus remained loyal to Herod and carried out every order he had received. But the women gradually won his favor with kind words and generous gifts. In the end, he told them everything Herod had instructed him to do. He was chiefly persuaded by the belief that Herod might not return with his former power. Sohemus thought this would protect him from danger and earn the women's gratitude. They might rule in their own right, or stand close to whoever took the throne, and could reward him richly. He also reasoned that even if Herod returned victorious, the king would be unable to refuse his wife's requests, since he loved her so intensely.

Mariamne was furious when she learned that Herod's orders still placed her in danger. She wished he would win no favor from Caesar and found it almost unbearable to think of living with him again. Later, she made her resentment plain to him.

Herod sailed home, delighted by his unexpected success. As was proper, he went first to Mariamne and told her the good news before anyone else, because he loved her and felt closer to her than to the rest of his household. He greeted her warmly. Yet when he told her how well things had gone, she did not share his joy. Instead, she could not hide her anger. Trusting in her rank and noble birth, she answered his greeting with a groan, making it clear that his success saddened rather than pleased her.

Herod was shaken. Her hatred was no longer hidden; she had shown her dissatisfaction openly. He could not bear this, though he loved her too much to stay angry for long. His feelings kept changing. At times he was furious with her, and at other times he made peace with her. Torn between love and hatred, he often wanted to punish her for her boldness. Yet he could not bring himself to leave her, because he loved her with all his heart. He wanted her punished, but feared that if he put her to death, he would bring an even heavier punishment upon himself.

Herod's sister and mother saw how conflicted he was about Mariamne and took the chance to feed his hatred of her. They told him long, malicious stories designed to stir both his anger and his jealousy. He was willing to listen, but he still could not bring himself to act against Mariamne as if he believed their accusations. Even so, his feelings toward her grew worse. Their hostility intensified on both sides: she made no effort to hide her feelings, and he turned his love into anger.

Just as he was about to take a step that could not be undone, he heard that Caesar had won the war, that Antony and Cleopatra were both dead, and that Egypt had been conquered. Herod hurried to meet Caesar, leaving his household as it was.

Before he left, Mariamne asked him to reward Sohemus for the care he had shown her. She said she owed him thanks and requested a position for him in the government. Herod granted the request and gave Sohemus an honorable office.

When Herod reached Egypt, Caesar welcomed him as an old friend and treated him with great favor. Caesar gave him the four hundred Galatians who had served as Cleopatra's guards and restored the territory she had taken from him. He also added Gadara, Hippos, and Samaria to Herod's kingdom, along with the coastal cities of Gaza, Anthedon, Joppa, and Strato's Tower.

These new territories made Herod more powerful and splendid. He escorted Caesar as far as Antioch, then returned home. His prosperity abroad had grown, but his troubles at home grew worse, especially in his marriage. Herod had seemed most fortunate in his love for Mariamne, and his devotion to her was as strong as that of any husband celebrated in history.

Mariamne, for her part, was chaste and faithful. Yet she had a naturally sharp temper and treated Herod imperiously because she knew how completely he was under her spell. She failed to remember that she lived under a monarchy and was subject to his authority. As a result, she often spoke to him with open disrespect. He usually brushed off her insults with a joke and bore them with patience.

She also openly mocked Herod's mother and sister for their low birth and spoke harshly about them. The women already disliked one another, and their quarrels grew more bitter. Their suspicions lasted for a year after Herod returned from meeting Caesar. The strain that had been held in check for so long finally burst into the open.

One day around noon, Herod was resting on his bed and called Mariamne to him, as he often did because of his great affection for her. She came in but refused to lie beside him. When he urged her to stay, she showed her contempt and reminded him that he had caused her father and brother to be killed.

Herod took this insult badly and was on the point of using force against her. His sister Salome saw how angry he had become and sent in his cupbearer, whom she had already prepared for the scheme. She instructed him to tell Herod that Mariamne had persuaded him to help prepare a love potion for the king. If Herod showed great concern and asked what the potion was, the cupbearer was to say that Mariamne had given it to him and asked him to administer it. But if Herod seemed unconcerned, he was to drop the matter. Salome promised that he would suffer no harm if he followed her instructions.

The cupbearer entered calmly enough to make his story believable, though he spoke with some urgency. He said Mariamne had given him gifts and urged him to provide Herod with a love potion. When Herod showed alarm, the cupbearer explained that he knew nothing about the mixture or what it might do. He had chosen to report the matter because he believed it was the safest course for both himself and the king.

Herod was already angry, and the report made his fury worse. He ordered Mariamne's most trusted eunuch to be tortured, knowing that nothing could have been done without the man's knowledge. Though the eunuch suffered terribly, he could say nothing about the supposed potion. He only knew that Mariamne hated Herod because of something Sohemus had told her.

When Herod heard this, he cried out that Sohemus, who had always been loyal to him and his government, would never have revealed his orders unless he had become too close to Mariamne. He ordered Sohemus seized and put to death at once. Mariamne, however, was allowed to stand trial.

Herod gathered the men most loyal to him and brought a detailed accusation against his wife over the supposed love potion, even though the charge had been made up to slander her. He was too angry to speak calmly or judge the matter fairly. Once the court understood how firmly he had made up his mind, its members sentenced Mariamne to death.

Afterward, Herod and some of the other judges suggested that she should not be killed at once, but held in a royal fortress. Salome and her supporters argued strongly for her execution. They warned that the people might revolt if Mariamne remained alive. Herod accepted their advice, and Mariamne was led away to be executed.

Alexandra saw what had happened and realized that Herod might soon treat her in the same way. She abandoned the bold manner she had shown before and behaved in a disgraceful, unexpected way. Hoping to make the crowd believe she knew nothing about the charges against Mariamne, she leaped from her place and denounced her daughter in front of everyone. She called Mariamne wicked and ungrateful to her husband, and said she deserved her punishment for her insolence. Mariamne, she claimed, had failed to repay the man who had been a benefactor to them both.

Alexandra kept up this false display for some time, even tearing at her own hair. The spectators condemned her shameless behavior, especially Mariamne, who was about to die. At first, Mariamne said nothing and showed no anger. She only looked at her mother. Her strength of character was clear in the concern she showed for Alexandra's disgrace, particularly the way her mother had humiliated herself. As for her own fate, Mariamne faced death without losing her composure or changing color. Even in her final moments, she showed the noble character of her birth.

So Mariamne died. She was known for her chastity and courage, though she lacked restraint and was too quick to quarrel. She was also exceptionally beautiful and carried herself with great dignity. These qualities, however, did not make her life with Herod as happy as it might have been.

Because Herod treated her with such indulgence, she came to believe he would never do anything harsh to her. She therefore allowed herself too much freedom. What troubled her most was the way he had treated her relatives. She spoke openly about what they had suffered at his hands, and in time she angered both his mother and sister until they became her enemies. She also provoked Herod himself, even though he was the person on whom she relied to protect her from the worst punishment.

After Mariamne's death, Herod's love for her grew more intense than before. His passion had never been calm or like the affection most husbands feel. From the beginning, it had been overwhelming, and even years of living together had not brought it under his control. Now it seemed to seize him as a kind of divine punishment for taking her life.

He called for her again and again and mourned her in a way that shocked those around him. He tried every means he could think of to distract himself. He held feasts and gatherings, but nothing helped. In the end, he stopped managing public affairs. His grief overcame him so completely that he ordered his servants to summon Mariamne, as if she were still alive and could hear them.

Then a plague broke out. It killed most of the people and many of Herod's closest and most respected friends. Everyone suspected that God had sent the disease in anger over the injustice done to Mariamne. This belief made Herod's suffering worse. At last, he forced himself to go into the wilderness, supposedly to hunt, but really to grieve.

He had been there only a few days when he fell gravely ill. He developed an inflammation and pain at the back of his head, along with periods of madness. The treatments did him no good and made his condition worse, until he began to despair. His physicians could not overcome the illness with their medicines. Since his disease left him able to eat little beyond what he craved, they told him to eat whatever he wanted and left his small chance of recovery to his diet and to fortune. His illness continued while he was at Samaria, now called Sebaste.

Alexandra was living in Jerusalem at the time. When she heard how ill Herod had become, she tried to take control of the fortified places near the city. There were two of them, one belonging to the city and the other to the Temple. Whoever controlled those strongholds could command the whole nation, because the sacrifices could not be offered without access to them. No Jew, she knew, would willingly give up the worship he had always offered to God, even at the cost of his life.

Alexandra spoke with the guards and urged them to hand the fortresses over to her and Herod's sons. If Herod died, she said, no outsider should seize the government. And if he recovered, his own family would be the safest guardian of the fortresses.

The guards rejected her proposal. They had always been loyal to Herod and resolved to remain so, all the more because they hated Alexandra and believed it was impious to give up hope of his recovery while he was still alive. They were old friends of the king, and one of them, Achiabus, was his cousin. So they sent messengers to tell Herod about Alexandra's plan.

Herod then ordered that she be put to death. Even so, he recovered from his illness only with great difficulty and after enduring severe pain. He remained troubled in mind and body, and became quicker than ever to punish anyone who displeased him. He also killed several of his closest friends: Costobarus, Lysimachus, Cadias, also called Antipater, and Dositheus. The reasons were as follows.

Costobarus was an Idumean of high rank. His ancestors had served as priests of Koze, whom the Idumeans had once worshiped as a god. After Hyrcanus changed Idumea's political order and required its people to adopt Jewish customs and law, Herod appointed Costobarus governor of Idumea and Gaza. He also gave him his sister Salome in marriage. This happened after Herod killed his uncle Joseph, who had previously held the governorship, as we have already described.

Costobarus was pleased with his promotion, which exceeded his expectations. Success made him proud, and before long he overstepped every limit. He refused to obey Herod's commands as ruler and did not want the Idumeans to follow Jewish customs or submit to them.

He sent a message to Cleopatra, claiming that Idumea had always belonged to his ancestors. He argued that she should ask Antony to grant him the country, since he was ready to transfer his loyalty to her. Costobarus did not actually prefer Cleopatra's rule. He hoped that if Herod's power declined, he could take control of Idumea for himself, and perhaps gain even more. His high birth and the wealth he had gathered through greed encouraged him to seek a great deal.

Cleopatra asked Antony for the territory on Costobarus's behalf, but she did not get it. When Herod learned what Costobarus had done, he was ready to kill him. However, his sister and mother pleaded for Costobarus, so Herod forgave him. He granted him a full pardon, though he continued to distrust him because of the attempt.

Some time later, Salome quarreled with Costobarus and sent him a bill of divorce, ending their marriage. This went against Jewish law. A husband could divorce his wife, but a wife who left her husband could not marry someone else unless her former husband divorced her. Salome, however, chose to follow her own authority rather than the law of her people and ended the marriage herself.

She told Herod that she had left Costobarus out of loyalty to her brother. She had learned that Costobarus, along with Antipater, Lysimachus, and Dositheus, was plotting a revolt against him. As proof, she pointed out that Costobarus had kept the sons of Babas alive for twelve years. Her claim was true.

Herod was astonished when he heard this. He had once tried hard to punish the sons of Babas because they opposed his rule, but the long passage of time had caused him to forget them. Their hostility began when Antigonus was king. Herod and his army besieged Jerusalem, where the people suffered such hardship that most of them invited Herod into the city and began to place their hopes in him.

The sons of Babas, however, were powerful and respected among the people. They remained loyal to Antigonus, spoke against Herod, and urged the people to preserve the rule of the royal family that had inherited the throne. They acted this way as a matter of policy and believed it served their interests.

After Herod captured the city and took power, he appointed Costobarus to prevent people from escaping through the gates and to guard against citizens who opposed the new king. Costobarus knew that the sons of Babas were highly respected by the people. He thought that keeping them alive might benefit him if the government changed again. So he hid them on one of his farms.

When Herod suspected that Costobarus had concealed them, Costobarus swore that he knew nothing about it and managed to clear himself. Later, Herod publicly offered a reward for information and used every means to find the men. Costobarus still refused to confess. Since he had already denied knowing anything, he feared he would be punished if the men were discovered. He kept them hidden not only out of goodwill toward them but also to protect himself.

Once Herod learned the truth from his sister, he sent men to the places where he had been told the sons of Babas were hiding. He ordered them killed, along with those accused of helping them. As a result, no members of Hyrcanus's family remained, and Herod held the kingdom entirely in his power. No one of comparable rank was left to stop him from acting against Jewish law.

CHAPTER 8

Ten Citizens of Jerusalem Conspire Against Herod Because He Introduced Foreign Customs That Violated the Laws of Their Country. Herod Builds Sebaste, Caesarea, and Other Structures.

Herod broke with the laws of his country and corrupted its ancient constitution by bringing in foreign customs. Those laws and customs should have remained untouched. His actions later led to great evils, as the religious practices that once guided the people toward piety fell into neglect.

First, Herod established games in Caesar's honor, to be held every five years. He built a theater in Jerusalem and a large amphitheater on the plain. These costly buildings went against Jewish custom, since no such spectacles had been handed down as proper for Jews to attend or present. Still, Herod held the games every five years with great ceremony and splendor.

He sent word to neighboring countries and summoned people from every nation. Wrestlers and other competitors came from many lands, drawn by the prizes and the honor of victory. The most celebrated performers in these contests gathered there, since Herod offered generous rewards not only to athletes who competed naked but also to musicians, known as Thymelici. He spared no effort to attract the most famous performers to compete.

Herod also offered substantial prizes in chariot races, whether the chariots were pulled by two, three, or four pairs of horses. He copied the most lavish customs of other nations because he wanted to make a public display of his greatness. Around the theater, he placed inscriptions celebrating Caesar's achievements and trophies honoring the nations Caesar had conquered. These were made of pure gold and silver. He displayed every costly object that could serve his purpose, including fine garments and precious stones.

He also gathered large numbers of wild animals, including lions, as well as other creatures known for their unusual strength or rarity. They were set to fight one another, or to attack men condemned to die. Foreign visitors marveled at the scale of the expense and the dangers of the events. But to Jews who remained faithful to their customs, these spectacles amounted to an assault on traditions they held in deep reverence.

They considered it openly impious to throw men to wild beasts for the crowd's entertainment. They also saw it as an act of impiety to replace their own laws with foreign spectacles. Above all, the trophies offended them. They thought the figures hidden beneath the armor were images of men, and they resented them because their country's customs forbade honoring such images.

Herod knew how troubled the people were. He thought it unwise to use force, so he tried to comfort some of them and ease their superstitious fear. Yet he failed to satisfy them. In their distress over what they believed he had done wrong, they cried out together that they might endure everything else, but they would never accept images of men in their city. They meant the trophies, which violated their country's laws.

When Herod saw their anger and understood that they would not change their minds without an explanation, he summoned the leading men and brought them into the theater. There he pointed out the trophies and asked what they thought they were. They answered that the trophies were images of men. Herod then ordered his servants to remove the decorations around them and showed the people the bare wooden frames. Stripped of their ornaments, the frames looked so ridiculous that the crowd laughed at them. They had already mocked the objects when they thought they were images.

Herod had now calmed the crowd and eased its anger. Most people were ready to change their attitude and stop opposing him. Some, however, remained hostile because he had introduced new customs. They believed that violating their country's laws would bring great harm upon them. In their view, it was more pious to risk death than to ignore Herod's actions. He had changed their government and forcefully introduced customs they had never practiced. Though he claimed to be a king, they believed he acted as an enemy to their whole nation.

For this reason, ten citizens of Jerusalem formed a conspiracy against him. They swore to face any danger together and hid daggers beneath their clothes so they could kill Herod. One of the conspirators was blind. He shared their anger over what he had heard and, though he could not help carry out the attack, he was ready to suffer with the others if they were caught. His courage greatly encouraged the rest.

After agreeing on their plan, the men went to the theater. They expected to catch Herod by surprise. If they failed to reach him, they hoped to kill many of his attendants. They were ready to die in order to make the king understand the injuries he had inflicted on the people.

The conspirators waited for their chance, but one of Herod's informers discovered the plot and reported it to the king just as he was about to enter the theater. Herod knew how much the people hated him and how easily unrest could break out, so he considered the report believable. He withdrew to his palace and summoned the accused men by name.

The guards seized them in the act. Knowing they could not escape, the conspirators faced their fate with composure. They neither showed shame nor denied what they had done. Instead, they displayed their daggers and declared that their sworn conspiracy was a holy and righteous act. They said they had acted neither for profit nor to satisfy personal passions, but to defend the shared customs that all Jews were bound to observe, even at the cost of their lives. They spoke with unwavering courage.

The king's guards led them away to be executed. They endured their torments patiently until they died. Before long, some people seized the informer who had exposed them. Hated by the crowd, he was killed, torn limb from limb, and thrown to the dogs.

Many citizens witnessed his death, but none revealed who had carried it out. Herod ordered a harsh investigation and used severe torture. Under torture, some women admitted what they had seen. The king punished those responsible so brutally that their entire families were destroyed for their reckless act.

The people's stubborn defense of their laws did nothing to soften Herod's attitude. Instead, he strengthened his position and resolved to surround the people with safeguards, fearing that such changes might lead to open rebellion.

Herod already had protection from the palace where he lived and from the Temple, beside which stood the strong fortress called Antonia, rebuilt by Herod himself. He decided to make Samaria another stronghold against the people. He renamed the city Sebaste and believed it would be as useful for defense as the other fortresses.

He fortified Samaria, which lay a day's journey from Jerusalem, so it could help keep both the city and the countryside under control. He also built a fortress for the whole nation on the site once known as Strato's Tower, which he renamed Caesarea. In addition, he chose a body of cavalry and stationed them on the great plain. He built a settlement for them in Galilee, called Gaba with Hesebonitis in Perea.

These were the main places Herod built. He kept looking for further ways to protect himself and placed guards throughout the country so the people could not escape his control or start an uprising. Since even a small disturbance could stir them to action, he wanted to hear of trouble at once. He stationed informers nearby to learn what the people were planning and to prevent them from carrying it out.

When Herod began building the wall around Samaria, he brought in many men who had served with him in his wars, along with people from the surrounding area. He made them citizens of the city. He wanted to build a temple and make the city more distinguished than before, but his chief purpose was to create a secure stronghold and a monument to his greatness. He renamed the city Sebaste and divided the fertile surrounding land among its residents so they would prosper as new settlers.

Herod also built a strong wall around the city, using the slope of the land to strengthen its defenses. He expanded the city beyond its former size until it rivaled the most famous cities. Its circumference was twenty furlongs. Near its center, he built a sacred enclosure a furlong and a half around, then erected a temple there, notable for its size and beauty.

He decorated the different parts of the city in many ways. He also made the walls strong enough to protect him, turning much of the city into a citadel. At the same time, he gave careful attention to its beauty, hoping to leave later generations a record of his taste and generosity.

CHAPTER 9

The Famine in Judea and Syria, and How Herod, After Taking Another Wife, Rebuilt Caesarea and Other Greek Cities

In the thirteenth year of Herod's reign, great disasters struck the country. They may have come from God's anger, or they may have been part of the natural cycle by which such hardship returns at certain times. First, the rains failed year after year. The land grew barren and produced far less fruit than it had before. Then the shortage of grain forced people to change their diet, and many fell ill. A plague followed, one calamity after another. Because the people had neither food nor any way to treat the disease, the plague, which had begun with great force, lasted longer. As people died, those who survived lost heart. They had no means to find remedies for their suffering.

The harvest failed, and the food people had stored ran out. They had no hope of relief, and their misery continued to grow. They had nothing left for themselves by the end of that year, and even the seed they planted perished because the land failed to produce a second harvest. Driven by hunger, people ate things they would not ordinarily have eaten. The king suffered too. He received no tribute from the crops, and he had already spent his money generously on the cities he had built. Nor could he easily help his people, since the disaster had made them hate him. It is common for people to blame their rulers when misfortune strikes.

Herod considered how he might provide timely aid, but the task was difficult. Neighboring lands had no food to sell, and the people had no money to buy even a small amount at a high price. Still, he decided that he must do everything he could to help them. He sold the rich furnishings of his palace, both silver and gold. He spared none of his finest vessels, even those made with the greatest skill, and sent the proceeds to Petronius, whom Caesar had appointed prefect of Egypt.

Many people had already fled to Petronius in their distress. He was Herod's friend and wanted to save his subjects, so he first gave them permission to export grain. He also helped them buy and ship it. In this way, he became the chief source of aid, and perhaps the only one. Herod made sure his people understood that the help came through him. As a result, he softened the hostility of those who had hated him and gave them strong proof of his concern for them.

He carefully distributed grain to those who could provide for themselves. For the many people who could not, because of age or illness, he arranged for bakers to make bread for them. He also provided clothing to protect them from the winter. Their sheep and goats had been wiped out, leaving them without wool or other materials to cover themselves.

After providing for his own people, Herod also helped neighboring communities. He gave seed to the Syrians, and his aid arrived at the right time for their fertile land. As a result, they too had an abundant food supply. When the harvest season approached, Herod sent no fewer than fifty thousand men he had supported back into the countryside. Through his generosity and care, he helped restore his own kingdom and ease the suffering of neighboring peoples who faced the same disasters.

No person in need who turned to him went without suitable help. Communities, cities, and private citizens who had to feed large numbers and lacked the means to do so received what they needed. By one estimate, Herod gave foreigners ten thousand cori of wheat, each cor equal to ten Attic medimni. He distributed about eighty thousand cori within his own kingdom.

His concern and timely generosity won praise among the Jews and other nations. They helped erase the hatred he had earned by violating some of their customs during his reign. His aid in their greatest hour of need seemed to make amends for those earlier offenses and brought him great fame abroad. The calamities had struck his land with almost unbelievable force, yet they also increased his renown and brought him great advantage. His unexpected generosity changed the people's opinion of him. They began to think that he had always been the kind of man his care for them now seemed to show.

Around this time, Herod sent five hundred picked men from his personal guard to serve as auxiliaries for Caesar. Aelius Gallus led them to the Red Sea, where they proved very useful.

As Herod's affairs improved and his kingdom returned to prosperity, he built a palace in the upper city. He raised its rooms to great heights and filled them with costly furnishings of gold, along with marble seats and beds. The rooms were large enough to hold many groups of guests. They also differed in size, and each had its own name. One was called Caesar's room, and another Agrippa's.

Herod fell in love again and took another wife, following his desires rather than restraining them. This marriage came about in the following way. A man named Simon lived in Jerusalem. He was the son of Boethus, an Alexandrian citizen and a prominent priest. Simon had a daughter who was considered the most beautiful woman of her time. When people in Jerusalem began speaking often of her beauty, Herod took notice. After seeing her, he fell in love with her. Yet he rejected the idea of using his power to take her by force, since he knew that such an act would earn him a reputation for violence and tyranny. Instead, he decided to marry her.

Simon was not of high enough rank to become Herod's relative by marriage, yet he was too important to dismiss. Herod found a way to manage his desire with better judgment: he raised the family's standing and made it more honorable. He removed Jesus, son of Phabet, from the high priesthood and gave the office to Simon. He then married Simon's daughter and joined their families.

After the wedding, Herod built another fortress at the place where he had defeated the Jews when they drove him from his rule and Antigonus took power. The fortress stood about sixty furlongs from Jerusalem. The site was naturally strong and well suited to such a structure. It was a low hill that Herod raised by hand until it resembled a woman's breast. Circular towers surrounded it, and a narrow, straight path led upward by two hundred steps of polished stone.

Inside stood splendid royal apartments, designed for both safety and beauty. Around the base were buildings worth seeing for their construction and for the water brought there from far away at great expense, since the hill itself had no water. The plain around the fortress was covered with buildings. In size, it was equal to any city, while the hill above it served as a citadel.

By then, Herod's plans had succeeded, and he had little reason to expect trouble in his kingdom. His people obeyed him both because they feared his severe punishments and because he had shown generous care for them in their time of need.

Still, he sought security beyond his own subjects. He gave kind and eloquent speeches to the cities, built good relations with their governors, and gave each of them gifts. In this way, he made them friendlier to him and used his generosity to strengthen his hold on the kingdom. His affairs continued to grow in every direction.

Yet Herod's grand style, and the humility and generosity he showed toward Caesar and Rome's most powerful men, led him to violate the customs of his own people and set aside many of their laws. He built cities on an extravagant scale and raised temples. He did not build these in Judea, where the people would not have accepted them, since Jewish law forbade honoring images or representations of animals in the Greek manner. Instead, he built them in the lands beyond Judea and in the cities there.

Herod told the Jews that he had done these things at the command of others, to please Caesar and the Romans, and not because he wished to do so himself. He claimed that he had put Roman honor ahead of Jewish customs. In truth, however, he had his own interests in mind. He was eager to leave great monuments for later generations, so he worked hard to build magnificent cities and spent vast sums on them.

Herod found a site near the sea that was well suited to a city. It had once been called Strato's Tower. There he planned a magnificent city and diligently raised many buildings of white stone. He added splendid palaces and large public buildings. His greatest and most demanding project was a harbor, built to remain safe from the sea's waves.

The harbor was as large as the one at Piraeus in Athens and had two ship basins facing the city. Its construction was especially impressive because the site was not naturally suited to such grand buildings. Workers had to bring in materials from elsewhere, at enormous expense, to complete it.

The city stood in Phoenicia, on the sea route to Egypt, between Joppa and Dora. Both were smaller coastal towns, and neither could provide a safe harbor. Strong southern winds drove sand against their shores, making it impossible for ships to remain there. Merchants were generally forced to anchor out at sea.

Herod set out to correct this problem. He marked off enough land to create a harbor where large ships could lie safely. To build it, he lowered huge stones into water twenty fathoms deep. Some stones were more than fifty feet long, eighteen feet wide, and nine feet thick. Others were smaller, and some were larger.

The breakwater along the shore was two hundred feet wide. Half of it faced the force of the waves and stopped them before they reached the harbor. This section was called Procymatia, or the first breaker of the waves. The other half carried a wall with several towers. The largest tower was named Drusus, after Caesar's son-in-law, who died young. The work was of exceptional quality.

Many arched spaces provided shelter for sailors. A quay ran around the entire harbor, making a pleasant place to walk. The harbor entrance faced north, where the winds were calmest. On the left side of the entrance stood a strong, rounded tower built to withstand the largest waves. On the right stood two enormous stones, each larger than the tower. They rose upright and were joined together.

Buildings of polished stone lined the harbor. A raised platform supported a temple that sailors could see from far away as they approached. Inside stood statues of Rome and Caesar. Herod called the city Caesarea. He built it from fine materials and gave it an elegant design. Even its underground vaults and cellars received as much architectural care as the buildings above them.

Some of the vaults ran at even intervals toward the harbor and the sea. Another crossed them at an angle and joined them together. This arrangement carried away rainwater and the city's waste. At high tide, seawater also entered the city and washed it clean.

Herod built a stone theater there as well. Behind the harbor, on the southern side, he raised an amphitheater large enough for a great crowd, with a clear view of the sea. Caesarea was completed in twelve years. Throughout that time, the king continued the work and paid its costs.

CHAPTER 10

How Herod Sent His Sons to Rome, Was Accused by Zenodorus and the Gadarenes, Cleared of Their Charges, and Won Caesar's Favor; Concerning the Pharisees, the Essenes, and Manahem

While Herod was occupied with these affairs, he had already rebuilt Sebaste, formerly called Samaria. He then decided to send his sons Alexander and Aristobulus to Rome, where they could spend time with Caesar. When they arrived, they stayed at the home of Pollio, who was a close friend of Herod. They were also allowed to stay at Caesar's own palace. Caesar welcomed Herod's sons warmly and gave Herod permission to leave his kingdom to whichever of them he chose.

Caesar also granted Herod Trachon, Batanea, and Auranitis. He did so for the following reason. A man named Zenodorus had leased what was known as the house of Lysanias. Dissatisfied with its income, Zenodorus joined forces with the bandits who lived in Trachonitis, hoping to increase his profits. The people of that region lived lawlessly and raided the territory of the Damascenes. Zenodorus did nothing to stop them; instead, he shared in their plunder.

The neighboring people suffered greatly, so they complained to Varro, then governor of Syria, and asked him to report Zenodorus's abuses to Caesar. After hearing their complaints, Caesar wrote to Varro, ordering him to clear out the bandits' strongholds and give the land to Herod. Caesar hoped Herod would protect the neighboring regions from the Trachonites' raids.

Keeping the Trachonites under control was no easy task. Raiding had long been their way of life, and they had no other means of making a living. They owned neither towns nor farmland. Instead, they lived with their cattle in shelters and caves dug into the earth. They had built pools to store water and granaries to hold their grain, and they could put up a strong defense by suddenly attacking anyone who approached.

The entrances to their caves were so narrow that only one person could enter at a time, but inside, the caves were vast. The ground above their dwellings was fairly level, while the surrounding rocks were rough and difficult to cross. A traveler could find the road across the plain only with the help of a guide, since the paths twisted and doubled back. When the Trachonites could no longer raid their neighbors, they turned against one another. They would commit any kind of injustice.

After Caesar granted Herod this territory, Herod went there, hired skilled guides, and put an end to the raids. He brought peace and safety to the neighboring people.

Zenodorus was angry, first because he had lost his territory, and even more because Herod had received it. He went to Rome to accuse Herod, but returned without achieving anything.

Around this time, Agrippa was sent to govern the lands beyond the Ionian Sea on Caesar's behalf. Herod met him while Agrippa was spending the winter near Mitylene. Since the two men had long been close friends, Herod later returned to Judea.

Some of the Gadarenes then went to Agrippa and accused Herod. Agrippa sent them back to the king in chains without hearing their case. The Arabians, who had long resented Herod's rule, were also stirred to rebellion. They believed they had a stronger case than before because Zenodorus, having given up hope of recovering his own territory, had sold them part of his former lands, Auranitis, for fifty talents. Since Caesar had already included Auranitis in his grant to Herod, the Arabians claimed that Herod had wrongfully taken land they had bought.

At times they raided Herod's territory, at times they tried to use force against him, and at other times they took their dispute to court. They also persuaded poorer soldiers to support them, hoping to provoke a revolt among the people. Those who lived in the worst conditions were the most eager to join such efforts.

Although Herod had known about these plots for a long time, he did not respond with harsh measures. Instead, he tried to calm the situation through reasonable means, since he did not want to give anyone an excuse to stir up unrest.

Herod had ruled for seventeen years when Caesar came to Syria. At that time, most of the people of Gadara complained that Herod imposed harsh demands on them and ruled like a tyrant. They dared to make these accusations largely because Zenodorus had encouraged them. He swore that he would not rest until he had removed them from Herod's kingdom and placed them under Caesar's direct rule.

The Gadarenes believed Zenodorus and raised a loud protest against Herod. They spoke with even greater boldness because Herod had not punished the men whom Agrippa had sent back to him in chains. He had released them without harming them. In fact, Herod was severe when punishing crimes within his own family, but generous in forgiving offenses committed by others.

The Gadarenes accused him of abuses, plunder, and the destruction of temples. Herod remained calm and stood ready to answer their charges. Caesar, however, took Herod's hand and showed that the commotion had not weakened his friendship with him.

The accusations were presented on the first day, but the hearing went no further. The Gadarenes saw that Caesar and his advisers favored Herod, and they expected, with good reason, to be handed over to the king. Some feared the torture they might face and cut their own throats during the night. Others threw themselves from cliffs or into the river and died by their own hands. These events seemed to confirm their guilt and the recklessness of their accusations. Caesar then cleared Herod of every charge.

Another event soon brought Herod great benefit. Zenodorus suffered a rupture in his abdomen, and a large amount of blood flowed from him during his illness. He died at Antioch in Syria. Caesar then gave Herod Zenodorus's considerable territory, which lay between Trachonitis and Galilee and included Ulatha, Paneas, and the surrounding region.

Caesar also appointed Herod as one of the governors of Syria and ordered the others to act only with his approval. Herod reached such a height of favor that, in the vast Roman Empire, only two men stood above him: Caesar himself and Agrippa, Caesar's closest friend. Caesar favored no one more than Agrippa, and Agrippa counted no one as a greater friend than Herod, except Caesar.

With this freedom to ask favors, Herod requested a tetrarchy for his brother Pheroras. He also gave Pheroras an annual income of one hundred talents from his own kingdom, so that his brother would be secure if anything happened to Herod and would not fall under the power of Herod's sons.

After escorting Caesar to the sea, Herod returned home and built a beautiful temple of white stone in Zenodorus's territory, near the place called Panium. There was a remarkable cave in the mountains, with a deep hollow beneath it. The cavern had steep sides and was extraordinarily deep, with still water at its bottom. A great mountain rose above it, and the springs of the Jordan River flowed beneath the caves. Herod further adorned this already striking place by building a temple there in Caesar's honor.

At that time, Herod reduced his subjects' taxes by one-third. He claimed that he wanted to ease their burden after a famine, but his main purpose was to regain their favor. The people resented him because he had changed their way of life, weakened their religion, and displaced their customs.

Herod guarded himself against their anger and prevented them from finding opportunities to disturb his rule. He ordered them to keep working and forbade citizens to gather, walk, or eat together. He watched their actions closely, and when he caught anyone meeting in secret, he punished them severely. Many people were taken openly or secretly to the citadel of Hyrcania and put to death there.

Herod also placed spies throughout the city and along the roads to watch for gatherings. The reports say that he sometimes disguised himself as an ordinary man and mingled with the crowd at night to learn what people thought of his government. He used every means to punish those who refused to accept his rule.

He also demanded that the people swear loyalty to him and promise to support his government. Many agreed, either to please him or because they feared him. Those with more honorable and independent minds resented the force he used, and Herod found ways to get rid of them.

He tried to persuade Pollio the Pharisee, Satneas, and most of their students to take the oath. They refused, but Herod did not punish them, out of respect for Pollio. The Essenes, as we call one of our own sects, were also excused from the oath. They live much as the Greeks called Pythagoreans do. I will discuss them more fully elsewhere.

It is fitting, however, to explain here why Herod held the Essenes in such high regard and thought so highly of them, even beyond what their mortal nature might seem to deserve. Their story also belongs in this history, since it shows the reputation they had among the people.

One Essene named Manahem was known not only for his excellent way of life but also for his God-given knowledge of future events. Once, when Herod was a child on his way to school, Manahem saw him and greeted him as the king of the Jews.

Herod thought Manahem either did not recognize him or was joking, so he reminded him that he was only a private citizen. Manahem smiled, patted him on the backside, and said, "Even so, you will be king, and your reign will begin happily, because God has judged you worthy of it. Remember the blows Manahem gave you. They are a sign of the change in your fortune. The best course for you is to treat people justly, honor God, and show kindness to your citizens. Yet I know how you will act. You will not follow this counsel. You will surpass all men in good fortune and gain an everlasting reputation, but you will forget piety and justice. God will not overlook these sins. At the end of your life, you will learn that He remembers them and will punish you for them."

At the time, Herod paid little attention to Manahem's words because he had no hope of rising so high. A short while later, however, he became king and reached the height of his power. He sent for Manahem and asked how long he would reign. Manahem did not give him the full length of his reign, so Herod asked whether he would rule for ten years. Manahem replied, "Yes, twenty years, even thirty," but he did not give an exact limit.

Herod accepted these answers, shook Manahem's hand, and sent him away. From then on, he continued to honor all the Essenes. I have thought it right to tell readers this story, strange as it may seem, and to record what happened among us. Many Essenes have been judged worthy of knowledge of divine revelations because of their exceptional virtue.

CHAPTER 11

How Herod Rebuilt the Temple, Made It Taller and More Magnificent Than Before, and Built the Tower He Named Antonia

In the eighteenth year of his reign, after completing the works already described, Herod undertook a great project: he would rebuild the Temple of God, enlarge its grounds, and raise it to a height of great splendor. He considered this the finest of all his achievements, and rightly so. He believed that completing the Temple would provide him with an everlasting memorial.

Herod knew that the people were neither ready nor willing to help with such a vast undertaking. He decided to prepare them with a speech before beginning the work. He called them together and said:

"My countrymen, I don't think I need to remind you of the other works I've completed since I became king. They have brought you greater security than they have brought me glory. Even in the hardest times, I haven't neglected what could ease your needs. Nor have I built only to protect myself from harm. With God's help, I believe I've brought the Jewish nation to a level of prosperity it never knew before.

"You know the buildings I've raised and adorned in your own country and cities, as well as in the cities we've recently acquired. They have added to the dignity of your nation, and I don't need to list them for you. You know them well. But I now intend to undertake a work of the greatest piety and excellence, and I will tell you what it is.

"When our fathers returned from Babylon, they built this Temple for Almighty God. Yet it falls sixty cubits short of the height of the first Temple, which Solomon built. No one should blame our fathers for this shortfall or accuse them of lacking piety. They weren't responsible for the Temple's reduced height. Cyrus and Darius, the son of Hystaspes, set the dimensions for its rebuilding. Because our fathers were subject to them and their descendants, and later to the Macedonians, they couldn't follow the original plan for this sacred building or restore it to its former height.

"Now, by God's will, I'm your ruler. We've enjoyed peace for a long time, and I've gained great wealth and substantial revenues. Most important, I'm on good terms with the Romans, who rule nearly the whole world. So I will do what I can to correct the defect forced upon us by our circumstances and our former subjection. In the most pious way I can, I'll thank God for the blessings he's given me, including this kingdom, by making his Temple as complete as I can."

Herod's speech alarmed many of the people. His plan had taken them by surprise, and they found it hard to believe. Rather than reassure them, his words left them afraid. They thought he might tear down the whole Temple and fail to rebuild it. The danger seemed great, and the project too vast to complete.

While the people were still troubled, the king encouraged them. He promised that he wouldn't pull down the Temple until he had prepared everything needed to rebuild it in full. He kept his word. Herod gathered a thousand wagons to carry building stones and selected ten thousand skilled workers. He also bought a thousand priestly garments for the same number of priests. Some priests learned the work of stonemasons, while others learned carpentry. Only after every part of the project was ready did he begin the construction.

Herod removed the old foundations and laid new ones. He then built the Temple upon them. It was one hundred cubits long, and its height was increased by twenty cubits. Those twenty cubits later sank with the foundations, and we decided to restore that part in the time of Nero.

The Temple was built of strong, white stone. Each stone was twenty-five cubits long, eight cubits high, and about twelve cubits wide. The entire structure, including the royal colonnade, stood much lower at the sides and much higher in the middle. It could be seen from many furlongs away, especially by people living opposite it or approaching the city.

At the Temple entrance stood doors with lintels as high as the building itself. Embroidered curtains decorated them, with purple flowers and woven designs. Above the doors, beneath the cornice, a golden vine spread out, its branches hanging down from a great height. The vine's size and fine workmanship amazed those who saw it.

Herod also surrounded the whole Temple with immense colonnades, built in proper proportion to the structure. He spent more money on them than any king before him, and the Temple seemed more splendid than it had ever been. A great wall enclosed both colonnades, and the wall itself was an extraordinary work.

The hill rose steeply from the east side of the city, then gradually sloped down toward the surrounding area. Solomon, the first of our kings, enclosed the hill with a wall by divine guidance. He built it skillfully along the upper edge and around the summit. Below, he began another wall at the foot of the hill, beside a deep valley. On the southern side, he joined large stones together with lead and enclosed part of the interior. He raised the wall until the square platform and its height had become immense. The enormous stones along its outer face could be seen from outside, while iron fittings held the inner joints together and kept them firm for generations.

After the foundation work was complete, Solomon joined it to the hill up to its summit. He then shaped the whole area into a single outer surface, filled the hollows around the wall, and leveled its upper side. The hill was enclosed by a wall four furlongs around, with each side measuring one furlong.

Within that wall, at the very top of the hill, stood another stone wall. On its eastern side was a double colonnade as long as the wall itself. The Temple stood in its center, facing the gates. Many kings had adorned the colonnade in earlier times. Around the Temple, people had set up spoils taken from foreign nations. Herod dedicated those offerings to the Temple, along with the spoils he had taken from the Arabians.

On the north side of the Temple stood a strong, square fortress. The Hasmonean kings, who had also served as high priests before Herod, built it and called it the Tower. They kept the high priest's vestments there. The high priest wore them only when he offered sacrifices.

King Herod kept the vestments in the Tower. After his death, the Romans controlled them until the reign of Tiberius Caesar. During that reign, Vitellius, governor of Syria, came to Jerusalem and received a splendid welcome from the people. Wanting to repay their kindness, he agreed to their request that the sacred vestments be returned to their control. He wrote to Tiberius, who granted the request.

The Jews kept control of the vestments until the death of King Agrippa. Afterward, Cassius Longinus, governor of Syria, and Cuspius Fadus, procurator of Judea, ordered the Jews to return them to the Tower of Antonia. They said the Romans should control the garments, as they had in earlier times. The Jews then sent ambassadors to Claudius Caesar to ask for the vestments. When Agrippa the Younger was in Rome, he also appealed to the emperor and secured their return. Claudius ordered Vitellius, who was then in command in Syria, to hand them over.

Before this, the vestments had been kept under the seals of the high priest and the Temple treasurers. On the day before a festival, the treasurers went to the Roman officer in charge of the Temple guards. They checked their seal and collected the garments. After the festival, they returned the vestments to the same place and showed the officer that their seal matched his before storing them again. The troubles that later arose over the vestments show that this account is true.

As for the fortress itself, Herod strengthened it to protect and guard the Temple. To honor his friend Antonius, the Roman ruler, he named it the Tower of Antonia.

Four gates stood along the western side of the Temple enclosure. The first led to the king's palace and crossed a passage above the valley between them. Two others opened toward the city's suburbs. The fourth led to the other part of the city. From there, a road descended into the valley by many steps, then climbed again toward the city, which faced the Temple like the seats of a theater. A deep valley ran along the city's entire southern side.

The Temple's southern side had gates at its center and a royal colonnade with three aisles. The colonnade stretched from the eastern valley to the western one, since it couldn't extend any farther. It was finer than any other colonnade under the sun. The valley below it was so deep that someone looking down from above couldn't see its bottom. Because the colonnade stood at such a height, anyone looking down from its battlements toward the valley would feel dizzy. The eye couldn't reach the bottom of that immense depth.

Four rows of pillars ran through the colonnade. The fourth row was built into the stone wall. Each pillar was so thick that three men, with their arms stretched out, could reach around it and touch hands. The pillars were twenty-seven feet tall, and each had a double spiral at its base. There were 162 pillars in all. Their capitals had carvings in the Corinthian style, and their great size astonished those who saw them.

The four rows of pillars formed three passageways. The two side passages ran parallel and were built alike. Each was thirty feet wide, one furlong long, and fifty feet high. The central passage was one and a half times as wide as either side passage and twice as high. Its wooden ceiling was covered with deep carvings of many kinds of figures.

The central passage rose far above the others. Beams rested on pillars built into the front wall, which was made entirely of polished stone. Its fine finish seemed unbelievable to those who hadn't seen it and filled those who had with wonder.

That was the first enclosure. Near its center, a short flight of steps led up to the second enclosure, which a stone partition surrounded. An inscription on the wall warned foreigners that they would be put to death if they entered. The inner enclosure had three gates on both its southern and northern sides, spaced at equal distances. On the east, toward the sunrise, stood one large gate. Those who were ritually pure entered through it with their wives, but women couldn't go farther into the Temple.

Beyond this was a third court, where only priests could enter. The Temple itself stood within that court, with the altar in front, where we offered sacrifices and burnt offerings to God. King Herod entered none of these three enclosures, because he wasn't a priest. Still, he cared for the colonnades and outer enclosures, which he built in eight years.

The priests built the Temple itself in a year and six months. All the people rejoiced when the work was finished. First they gave thanks to God, then to the king for the energy he had shown. They held a feast to celebrate the rebuilding of the Temple. Herod sacrificed 300 oxen to God, and the people made offerings according to their means. No one could record the number of sacrifices, because it would be impossible to give a true account of them all.

The celebration also fell on the day of the king's inauguration, which he kept as an annual festival according to an old custom. Since both occasions came at the same time, the festival was especially splendid.

A secret passage had also been built for the king. It ran from Antonia to the inner Temple and opened at its eastern gate. Herod also built a tower for himself above it, so he could reach the Temple by a hidden underground passage and guard against any uprising by the people against their kings.

It is also said that while the Temple was under construction, rain never fell during the day. Instead, the showers came at night, so the work wasn't interrupted. Our fathers passed this account down to us, and it isn't hard to believe for anyone who considers God's signs.

In this way, the rebuilding of the Temple was completed.